Promoting Social Solidarity Economy in Tunisia: Neoliberal Assumptions and Missed Opportunities Within the Triple Nexus Discourse

ABSTRACT

Formally launched by the United Nations (UN) in 2016, the so-called Triple Nexus has been adopted by several international donors that have intervened in Tunisia since the fall of its authoritarian regime. Faced with the state's limited capacity to address critical post-revolutionary challenges such as escalating poverty and radicalisation, external actors – spanning multilateral, bilateral and non-governmental organisations – have endeavoured to tackle humanitarian, development and security issues to promote stability and support the fragile democratisation process in the country. In this context, Social Solidarity Economy (SSE) initiatives have gained prominence as a means to concurrently address diverse challenges associated with the ‘lack of social development’, including marginalisation and the absence of social cohesion – identified as catalysts for radicalisation and instability. In contrast with these stated objectives, fieldwork spanning 2015 to 2019 across various regions of Tunisia reveals that the international donor discourse on SSE, entrenched in a neoliberal approach and government securitisation strategies, exacerbates economic insecurity and amplifies marginalisation.

KEYWORDS:

• triple-nexus
• social solidarity economy
• development
• security
• neoliberal approach

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Eugenia Baroncelli and Daniela Irrera, who organised this group of articles on “The Triple Nexus and the Future of Multilateral Governance: Rethinking Coordination between Humanitarian, Development and Peacebuilding Efforts”. She would also like to thank the anonymous referees and the editors of the journal for their valuable comments. Finally, this research would have been impossible without the cooperation of all Tunisian individuals who agreed to be interviewed for this study. To them goes the author’s deepest gratitude.

Notes

1 Social Solidarity Economy (SSE) refers to an economic system based on principles of cooperation, mutual aid and social justice. In SSE, the focus is not solely on profit maximisation but also on meeting the needs of individuals and communities in a sustainable and equitable manner. The ‘Triple Nexus approach’ refers to a framework that integrates humanitarian, development and peacebuilding efforts in crisis response and conflict-affected contexts. This approach emphasises the interconnectedness of these three areas and seeks to coordinate efforts across sectors to achieve more sustainable outcomes in fragile contexts.

2 All interviews were conducted with the informed consent of the research participants, who were assured anonymity for safety reasons.

3 Parts of sections three and four have been drawn and elaborated upon from Sigillò (2023).

4 A structural adjustment plan refers to a package of economic reforms that a country is required to implement in order to qualify for financial assistance from institutions such as the International Monetary Fund or the World Bank.

5 Author’s interview with a Tunisian expert, Tunis, October 2019.

6 A post-hierarchical regime refers to a system characterised by the departure from rigid top-down power structures where authority and decision-making are centralised. It implies a more decentralised approach where decision-making is distributed across multiple actors.

7 ACT Alliance is a faith-based global network of more than 145 churches and related organisations from over 120 countries created to provide humanitarian aid to poor and marginalised people.

8 See https://www.aidflows.org/index.php?cid=TN (accessed 12 March 2024).

9 In interviews conducted by the author, local experts employed by Western international donors reiterated this accusation.

10 UNDP acts as a transmission belt between international donors and local NGOs. In Tunisia, it distributes funding mainly from Italy, Japan, Switzerland, Norway and Belgium.

11 The EU grants an average of €399 million annually to the country (Cherif 2017).

12 Issued by the EU Commission and the High Representative for the EU Common Foreign and Security Policy.

13 The EU’s civil society support programme (PASC) is part of the SPRING programme (Support for Partnership, Reform and Inclusive Growth), launched by the EU in the southern countries of its neighbourhood “to support the democratic transition process and promote good governance”. See European Commission (2011).

14 Author’s interview with an international organisation's official, Médenine, April 2016.

15 La société civile: levier du développement local (Civil society: a lever for local development) is the title of a project targeting civil society actors, implemented by UNDP Tunisia. See Jamaity (2014)

16 The EU programme to support civil society implemented in 2013 emphasised the role of CSOs in promoting economic development. See European Partnership for Democracy (2013). Sustainable economic growth and social cohesion in marginalised regions have been listed as two priority sectors by the EU for the period 2021-24. In 2023, the European Commission launched a call for proposals to support the initiatives of CSOs in the “development of economically inclusive and viable models”. See Funds for NGOS (2023).

17 Data collected through document analysis of international donors’ brochures stored by local associations.

18 Author’s interview with an international organisation’s official, Tunis, December 2016.

19 Author’s interview with an international organisation’s official, Médenine, April 2016.

20 Author’s interview with an EU official, Djerba, April 2016.

21 Participant observation in a meeting of the round table, Djerba, May 2017.

22 Author’s interview with an international organisation’s official, Médenine, April. 2016.

23 Author’s interview with an expert, Tunis, October 2019.

24 Ibid.

25 The concept of homo economicus originating from classical economics, posits individuals as rational agents who make decisions to maximise their self-interest, particularly in economic exchanges. This notion intersects with neoliberal ideology, emphasising individual initiative and self-reliance over dependence on governmental or societal assistance.

26 Author’s interview with an expert, Tunis, October 2019.

27 Author’s interview with an international organisation’s official, Tunis, October 2015.

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid.

30 Author’s interview with an EU official, Médenine, February 2017.

31 Ibid.

32 Author’s interview with a CSO’s member, Médenine, October 2017.

33 Author’s interview with a local official, June 2016.

34 Author’s interview with an international organisation’s official, Médenine, May 2016.

35 Author’s interview with a CSO’s member, Médenine, June 2016.

36 Author’s interview with a CSO’s member, Djerba, February 2016.

37 Author’s interview, Médenine, February 2016.

38 Author’s interview, Médenine, June 2016.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ester Sigillò

Ester Sigillò is Senior Assistant Professor in the Department of Social and Political Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.