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Abstract
Field hockey’s development in China, mirroring its socio-political shifts over a century, unfolds in four phases. The first phase began in 1900; field hockey was introduced into China because Westerners played in Foreign Concession in Shanghai. With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, field hockey gained official recognition, marking the second phase. Following the Cultural Revolution, field hockey gained significant prominence in the third phase, particularly women’s field hockey, peaking with a 2008 Beijing Olympics silver medal, reflecting China’s strategic Olympic ambitions. The 2008 Beijing Olympic Games led the development of field hockey into the fourth phase. Youth field hockey received more and more attention. While this has elevated China’s field hockey population, it also underscores potential imbalances between promoting elite sports and grassroots development. The professionalisation of field hockey remains in its nascent stages, with state-driven growth overshadowing broader public participation. The development of field hockey in China reflects the intricate interplay between China’s sports policies, national identity, and international ambitions and offers researchers a window to develop critical perspectives on the power dynamics and policy-making processes in sports.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Zheng and his colleagues have explored the strategic methods behind the success of Chinese elite sports, as well as sports categorization and prioritization. They provide a comprehensive examination of sports policies across different periods, emphasizing the importance of government intervention. For more information about Zheng’s work, please see Jinming Zheng and Shushu Chen, ‘Exploring China’s success at the Olympic Games: a competitive advantage approach,’ European Sport Management Quarterly, 16, no. 2 (2016): 148–71; Jinming Zheng et al., ‘Sport Policy in China (Mainland)’, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 10, no. 3 (2018): 469–91.
2 Hong Fan and her colleagues have introduced the history of sports in China across different periods, primarily focusing on the history of elite and mass sports. Their work deeply analyses the political, economic, and cultural contexts, political rationales, and the significance of sports throughout the People’s Republic of China. For more information about Fan’s work, please see Hong Fan, ‘Sports Development and Elite Athletes in China’, in Routledge Handbook of Sports Development, ed. Barrie Houlihan and Mick Green (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), 399–417; Hong Fan, Wu Ping, and Huan Xiong, ‘Beijing Ambitions: An Analysis of the Chinese Elite Sports System and Its Olympic Strategy for the 2008 Olympic Games’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 22, no. 4 (2005): 510–29.
3 Guoqi Xu analyses the century-long development of sports in China, exploring the nation’s fascination with Western sports at the turn of the twentieth century and its relation to the quest for national and international identity. Guoqi Xu, Olympic Dreams: China and sports, 1895-2008 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008).
4 ‘Shanghai Hockey club’, The North China Daily News, November 21, 1900, C24.
5 For instance, The North-China Daily News reported on the real-life occurrences of a hockey event held in Fuzhou. ‘As to the Hockey Mania in Foochow, the “Echo” of the 19th Instant Says’, The North-China Daily News, January 29, 1901, C3. Additionally, the same newspaper also covered a match that took place between teams representing the Army and Navy. ‘The Hockey Match between Teams Representing the Army and Navy’, The North-China Daily News, October 27, 1900, C3.
6 ‘Shanghai Hockey League’, The North-China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette, December 4, 1909, C19.
7 Between 1900 and 1940, The North-China Daily News frequently reported on hockey matches that took place among police forces, military units, and schools.
8 ‘The Hong Kong Hockey Club’, The North China Daily News, October 9, 1903, C50.
9 Aiqing Society, ‘Aomen shiri lishi [Macau History]’, Facebook, February 28, 2016 https://www.facebook.com/ikangroup/posts/437763606430085/ (accessed October 31, 2023).
10 Ibid.
11 Gakushuin Alumni Association, Gakushuin HockeyBu Soubu 80 shunen Kinensi [Gakushuin Hockey Club 80th Anniversary Magazine] (Tokyo: Tokou Seihan Insatsu Kaisya, 2010).
12 Fengsheng Liu, ‘A Tale of Child-Rearing’, Women’s Magazine (Shanghai), January 6, 1916, 7–11.
13 ‘Interport Teams From H’keng To Make Final Stand’, The Shanghai Evening Post and Mercury, January 27, 1936, C5.
14 ‘Tsinghua University Sports Department Builds Women’s Field Hockey Rink’, Yanjing News, October 12, 1932, C4.
15 ‘Hockey Newly Added to the Physical Education Section of Central University’, Central Daily News, March 08, 1935, C8.
16 ‘Field Hockey-Wuhan Football Association to be Formed’, Wuhan Daily, January 13, 1936, C8.
17 For instance, the hockey teams established in China during that period, including teams from Shanghai, Tianjin, and Hong Kong, primarily consisted of Western members in their rosters and competition participants. Even in international competitions, the representatives in the Chinese teams were predominantly Western individuals. ‘Hockey Club is League Winner’, The China Press, February 11, 1912, C11; ‘International Hockey’, The China Press, February 21, 1914, C8.
18 ‘International Field Hockey’, The China Press, February 21, 1914, C8.; ‘England Winner in Field Hockey Match’, The China Press, February 22, 1914, C19.
19 Sarinder Dillon, ‘Brief History of Hockey in Hong Kong’, Hong Kong Hockey, China, http://www.hockey.org.hk/Content.asp?Uid=8 (accessed February 9, 2024).
20 Macau Hockey Association, History of Field Hockey in Macau, https://www.macaudata.mo/macaubook/encyclopedia/html/48302.htm.
21 For instance, a 1961 newspaper article reported the lineup for a friendly match between Hong Kong and Macau, and not a single name on the roster was Chinese. ‘Gangao QugunqiuSai Aodui Qiuyuan Xuanchu’ [Hong Kong-Macau Flied Hockey Tournament, Macao team players were selected], Overseas Chinese Daily News, January 26, 1961, C3.
22 Macau Hockey Association, Field Hockey in Macau, https://www.macaudata.mo/macaubook/encyclopedia/html/48302.htm.
23 Siting Qiu et al., ShenQiji-Qugunqiu Chunaqi [Miraculous Skills-The Legend of Field Hockey] (Taichung: Hsiuping University of Science and Technology, 2010), http://ir.hust.edu.tw/bitstream/310993100/2293/1/全文.pdf. (accessed October 3, 2023).
24 Hong Fan, ‘China’, in Comparative Elite Sport Development: Systems, Structures and Public Policy, ed. Barrie Houlihan and Mick Green (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Press, 2008), 26–52.
25 Xu, Olympic Dreams.
26 Ibid.
27 The ten sports are athletics, basketball, gymnastics, volleyball, table tennis, football, weightlifting, swimming, ice skating, and shooting.
28 For example, during the 1950s, the Soviet Union dispatched experts in various sports such as athletics, basketball, gymnastics, volleyball, weightlifting, football, swimming, and ice skating to China for guidance. For more information on the Soviet Union’s sports assistance to China, see Dawei Yu, ‘A Historical Review of the Soviet Union’s Sports Aid to New China’, Journal of Beijing Sport University 38, no. 4 (2015): 12–25.
29 The Soviet Union participated in all events except field hockey at the 1952 Olympics and did not compete in field hockey until the 1980 games.
30 Shaozu Wu, The History of Sport in the People’s Republic of China (Beijing: China Books Press, 1999).
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Xu, Olympic Dreams.
34 For more information about the reasons for the deterioration of Taiwan’s status in the Olympics, see Xu, Olympic Dreams.
35 For example, Taiwan once started to establish field hockey teams in some sports specialized schools in Taipei in 1975. However, due to the retirement of field hockey teachers and the advancement of students, some schools have abolished field hockey. For more details on Taiwan field hockey, see http://ir.hust.edu.tw/bitstream/310993100/2293/1/全文.pdf. (accessed October 3, 2023).
36 This includes Pakistan (eight times), Hong Kong (seven times), India and Germany (five times), Macau, Malaysia, and Japan (four times), Spain and Australia (three times), Thailand, the UK, Netherlands, Italy, and New Zealand (twice), and Bangladesh, Singapore, and Canada (once). For more details on China’s international exchanges in field hockey, see Softball, Field Hockey and Handball Centre, ‘Zhongguo qugunqiu fazhan dashiji’ [Milestones in the Development of Hockey in China], General Administration of Sport of China, https://www.sport.gov.cn/sqblqzx/n5291/c662266/content.html (accessed October 3, 2023).
37 Softball, Field Hockey and Handball Centre, ‘Zhongguo qugunqiu fazhan dashiji’ [Milestones in the Development of Hockey in China], General Administration of Sport of China, https://www.sport.gov.cn/sqblqzx/n5291/c662266/content.html (accessed October 3, 2023).
38 Hong Fan, Wu Ping, and Huan Xiong, ‘Beijing Ambitions: An Analysis of the Chinese Elite Sports System and Its Olympic Strategy for the 2008 Olympic Games’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 22, no. 4 (2005): 510–29.
39 State Council of the People’s Republic of China, ‘Guowuyuan Guanyu Jiakuai Fazhan Tiyu Canye Cujin Tiyu Xiaofei De Ruogan Jianyi’ [Opinions of the State Council on Accelerating the Development of the Sports Industry and Promoting Sports Consumption], State Council of the People’s Republic of China, https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2014-10/20/content_9152.htm (accessed October 3, 2023).
40 Xu, Olympic Dreams.
41 Ibid.
42 Hong Fan, Ping Wu, and Huan Xiong, ‘Beijing Ambitions: An Analysis of the Chinese Elite Sports System and its Olympic Strategy for the 2008 Olympic Games’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 22, no.4 (2005): 510-529.
43 Ibid.
44 Hongxin Li et al., ‘The Development of Women’s Professional Ice Field Hockey in China: Leveraging International Competition to Change Institutionalized Gender Norms’, Sport in Society 23, no. 3 (2020): 523–538.
45 Bai Yan, The Common Programme of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (Shanghai: Lianyi Publishing House, 1951).
46 Susan Brownell, ‘Challenged America: China and America – Women and Sport, Past, Present and Future’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 22, no. 6 (2005): 1173–93.
47 Softball, Field Hockey and Handball Centre, ‘Zhongguo qugunqiu fazhan dashiji’ [Milestones in the Development of Hockey in China], General Administration of Sport of China, https://www.sport.gov.cn/sqblqzx/n5291/c662266/content.html (accessed October 3, 2023).
48 Zhijun Meng, Zhongguo qugunqiu zhixiang [China’s Field Hockey Township] (Inner Mongolia: Inner Mongolia Culture Press, 2008).
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid.
51 For more details on China women’s field hockey team, see General Administration of Sport of China official website, https://www.sport.gov.cn/sqblqzx/n5291/c662266/content.html (accessed October 13, 2023).
52 Li et al., ‘The Development of Women’s Professional Ice Field Hockey in China’.
53 For more details on Taiwan field hockey, see http://ir.hust.edu.tw/bitstream/310993100/2293/1/全文.pdf. (accessed October 3, 2023).
54 Lixu, ‘leijun: rang bingshanxuelian de jingsheng zai daxuexiaoyuan zhanfang’ [Lei Jun: Let the Spirit of Women’s Field Hockey Blossom in School], Huaao Xingkong, July 7, 2011, http://hockey.sport.org.cn/home/scxx/2011/0707/293876.html (accessed May 3, 2023).
55 These provinces are Liaoning, Jilin, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Guangdong and Tianjin.
56 These provinces are Liaoning, Jilin, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Guangdong, Beijing, Heilongjiang, Tianjin, Jiangxi, Shanxi, Xinjiang and Zhejiang. ‘Hockey Reserve Talent Base (2020-2024)’, http://hockey.sport.org.cn/home/xhgg/2021/0104/372031.html (accessed January 3, 2023).
57 Chundong Shi, ‘Zhongguo nvqu houjirencai quefa jiasu peiyang xinren yicheng dangwuzhiji’ [China’s Women’s Filed Hockey Lack of Successors Accelerating the Training of Newcomers Has Become a Top Priority], Xinhua Wang, October 19, 2006, http://sports.sina.com.cn/o/2006-10-19/21032517145.shtml (accessed July 13, 2023).; Fangping Zhou, Xing Su, and Benjian Lin, ‘Zhonghe qugunqiu renkoubi 200/100,000 zhongguo nvqu xiaodui yinpai’ [China-Netherlands Field Hockey Population ratio 200/100,000 Chinese Women Laugh at Silver Medal], Yangcheng Evening News, August 23, 2008, http://2008.sina.com.cn/cn/ho/2008-08-23/1740251920.shtml (accessed July 13, 2023).
58 Lvping Dong, ‘Hanzhou Yayunhui Nvzi Qugunqiu Duoguan Zhijie Huode Bali Aoyunhui Cansai Zige [China Wins Hangzhou Asian Games Women’s Hockey, Qualifies Directly for Paris Olympics]’, Hangzhou Asian Games official website, https://www.hangzhou2022.cn/xwzx/jdxw/ttxw/202310/t20231007_73842.shtml (accessed March 10, 2024).
59 ‘Junior Gymnasium, Episode 5’, China Central Television, December 27, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvcXLRSN7gM&t=1256s (accessed November 3, 2023).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Jinwen Xie
Jinwen Xie is a PhD candidate in the Department of the Graduate School of Sport Sciences at Waseda University. His main area of expertise is sports culture. His recent publications include ‘The Spread of Karate in the People’s Republic of China: Preliminary Analyses by Factors of Encounter, Motivation, and Influence’, Asian Journal of Sport History & Culture (2023) (co-authored with Kohei Kawashima and Chang Liu).
Yuanyuan Cao
Yuanyuan Cao is a PhD candidate in the Department of the Graduate School of Sport Sciences at Waseda University. Her main area of expertise is sport business marketing and sports culture.