Preparing student teachers for the inclusion of autistic learners in the further education sector

ABSTRACT

This research aimed to explore student teachers’ perceptions, experiences, and attitudes towards the inclusion of autistic learners within the post-compulsory sector. Adopting an ethics of care approach, this research was conducted with 10 student teachers in a large college in North-East England. Participants were student teachers enrolled in a Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) for Further Education. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and thematically analysed. Student teachers reported various experiences of teaching autistic learners from no experience at all to placements in autism-specific provisions. The participants’ understanding of autism was varied and based on both personal and professional experiences prior to starting the PGCE and whilst studying the programme. The analysis indicated that although student teachers were positive in their attitude towards inclusion, they had some concerns over their ability to include autistic learners. This study highlights the importance of care and relationships in supporting the inclusion of autistic learners. A caring pedagogy with a focus on inclusion could help to address inequalities of access to education and bring about fairer educational success for autistic learners.

KEYWORDS:

• Autism
• ethics of care
• teacher education
• inclusion
• further education

Introduction

This research aimed to explore student teachers’ perceptions, experiences, and attitudes towards the inclusion of autistic learners within the post-compulsory sector in England. Getting qualified in the post-compulsory sector has different routes and includes both post-graduate and undergraduate qualifications. However, the requirement to have a teaching qualification in this sector was removed following the 2012 Lingfield report (DfBIS 2012), although it was recommended that teachers of English and maths and those working with learners with learning difficulties or disabilities should have specialist qualifications. To reflect this, on the Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) programmes where the study took place, there are four different PGCE pathways from which to choose. These four specialist routes are: Young People and Adults, English Literacy and ESOL, Maths and Numeracy, and Learning Difficulties and Disabilities. Like other initial teacher education (ITE) programmes, it is organised with both academic and vocational elements. On completion of the PGCE, students can apply for professional formation through the Education and Training Society to gain Qualified Teacher Learning and Skills (QTLS) status. This gives them parity of esteem with schoolteachers and enables those with QTLS to teach in schools in post-14 provision. As a result, graduates from these programmes gain employment across a range of provision, including secondary schools, further education (FE) colleges, community education, pupil referral units and prisons.

Literature review

Analysis of relevant literature, keywords and phrases on the theme of inclusion, autism, and teacher education was used as a starting point for the literature review. Sources were accessed through the University of Glasgow library.

A complex history underpins the development of inclusive practice and the meaning of inclusion in education may be ambiguous due to its many interpretations. Inclusion as a term first began to be discussed in the 1990s as a reaction to the integration/segregation debate which focused mainly on whether children with special educational needs (SEN) should be educated in special or mainstream schools (Oliver and Barnes 2010). Internationally and more recently inclusion can be seen more broadly in terms of including and welcoming diversity in all its forms and improving participation in society for people who are disadvantaged in order to eradicate social exclusion (United Nations 2016). As inclusion and inclusive education have been defined in a variety of ways, there is not one agreed definition of inclusion in England (Norwich 2014). Armstrong, Armstrong and Spandagou (2011) differentiate between broad and narrow definitions of inclusion. They suggest the inclusion of specific groups of students, usually those with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), into a ‘mainstream’ or ‘regular’ school as a narrow definition, whereas a broad definition of inclusion focuses on the diversity of all learners. This correlates with Norwich and Nash (2011, 3) who suggest inclusive education goes beyond a focus on SEND and state ‘inclusivity is defined in terms of diversity of children’.

In the context of this research, inclusion starts with the idea that education is a basic human right (Ainscow and Miles 2008) and is understood as a journey towards social justice, a ‘never ending process rather than a simple change of state’ (Ainscow 1999, 128). This is supported by Thomas and Whitburn (2019, 162) who describe inclusive education as ‘ongoing transformational change’, however, they highlight the failings of education to be genuinely inclusive, stating practice has not lived up to the ideology. They argue that clarity around how inclusive policy is realised in practice has been difficult due to the many interpretations of the term.

Worldwide research suggests that the prevalence of people with a diagnosis of autism is 1% (Lai, Lombardo, and Baron-Cohen 2014; Zeidan et al. 2022) and this parallels the prevalence rate in England (Brugha 2019). Many factors may be contributing to a rise in the prevalence rates including changes in diagnostic criteria, more awareness of the condition, and actual increases in prevalence (Rutter 2006). Although in the past the evidence indicated a ratio of boys to girls on the autism spectrum as 4:1 (Fombonne 2009), current research is starting to show the difference in the manifestation of autism in girls compared to boys (Dean, Harwood, and Kasari 2017; Wood-Downie et al. 2021). Girls on the autism spectrum have often been missed out of autism research which had focused predominantly on boys, and this exclusion from the body of knowledge on autism means girls have been less likely to be diagnosed and consequently less likely to receive appropriate support (Hebron and Bond 2019). ‘Pretending to be normal’, camouflaging, or masking is a commonly reported behaviour in autistic females (Bargiela, Steward, and Mandy 2016, 3287). However, it is important that autism is recognised so that this proportion of the population are not disproportionally disadvantaged by the education system.

The increase in prevalence means that more educators will have autistic learners in their classrooms and hence educators need to develop a better understanding of the complexities of this condition in order to support inclusion. This is of particular relevance as many more autistic individuals are now educated in mainstream provision as a result of both international (UNESCO 2009) and national educational inclusion policies. Given the lack of academic research focusing specifically on the implementation of inclusive practice in the post-compulsory sector (Meir 2018) and the even smaller body of literature on student teachers’ knowledge about inclusion with respect to autistic students in the post-compulsory sector, this study attempted to address an important area in the literature.

Crane, Goddard and Pring (2009) discuss how atypical sensory perceptual responses are prevalent in the majority of the autistic population. Sensory differences can include both hypersensitivity, where the senses seem to be too acute, and hyposensitivity, where the senses underperform, to incoming stimuli (Bogdashina 2005) leading to increased anxiety (Davidson 2007). Hyper-reactivity to tactile sensory input for example may include avoidance of crowds and touch as this may result in overwhelming sensations. Even the label in a jumper can be a terrible distraction (James 2018). Hypo-reactivity to sound for example, might cause a person to create noise through banging or tapping. Bogdashina (2011) describes how susceptibility to sensory stimuli may result in heightened stress levels for autistic people. Fear or anxiety associated with negative sensory experiences can limit autistic learners’ participation in daily activities as they may choose to opt out of opportunities (Kirby, Dickie, and Baranek 2015).

Inclusion in schools and colleges is ‘central to the cultivation of caring in society’ (Smit and Scherman 2016, 5). Ethics of care underpinned the research process and is used as a theoretical framework to support discussion. An ethic of care is a needs and response-based ethic (Noddings 1992) which sees ‘inequity as structural’ and ‘interdependence as a necessary aspect of the human condition’ (Gary and Berlinger 2020, 56). Held (2005) maintains the central focus of the ethics of care is to attend to and meet the needs of those for whom we take responsibility for. Essentially relational, Noddings (2002, 20) asserts the ‘connections between carer and cared-for’ are paramount to providing and receiving care and although this practice starts in the home, these principles then have potential to impact wider society through the infiltration of policymaking. Tronto (1993) takes this concept further through the development of a political ethics of care that sees care as a disposition as well as a practice and discusses how minority groups are oppressed by those in power. Noddings (1992) suggests teachers have a responsibility to create caring relationships with their students and to also support them to develop the capacity to care for others. Yet, Thomas and Whitburn (2019, 161) propose that we have ‘forgotten to connect with our students’ and suggest that instead of looking to diagnose a problem the focus should be on what they consider to be the core of the matter – the relationship between the teacher and the learner. Indeed, Noddings (1992, 15) claims caring should be at the heart of education and states the importance of the relational, that is, the ‘connection or encounter between two human beings – a carer and a recipient of care, or cared-for’. She suggests most teachers care in a virtue sense, as in they will be conscientious in their role in supporting learners to achieve. However, there is a difference, she suggests, in that caring in the relational sense involves building trust and involves high levels of empathy. Based on relationships and reciprocity, the ethics of care aligns with inclusive teaching as both are concerned with diligence, trust, and acceptance (Walker and Gleaves 2016). Ethics of Care is a concept concerned with ‘conditions of vulnerability and inequality’ (Tronto 1993, 134). Care is an alternative to a neo-liberal paradigm which suggest individuals are personally accountable for the situations in which they find themselves, especially in relation to inequality and exclusion (Zembylas, Bozalek, and Shefer 2014).

Methodology

This study was granted ethical approval from the University of Glasgow and my own organisation prior to the commencement of the research. Recruitment occurred via email from PGCE programme leaders other than me to avoid student teachers feeling any pressure to volunteer to participate. Doing research within my own department, it was important to consider the status of my role and not to make the student teachers feel as though they were ‘captive’ (Ferguson, Myrick, and Yonge 2006, 58). The Participant Information Sheet (PIS) explained what the participants could expect in terms of involvement in the project, the gathering and storage of data and the right to withdraw. Participants provided verbal and written consent prior to commencement of the interviews. Participants were informed that personal data would be destroyed in accordance with Data Protection legislation (2018) and that real names would be pseudonymised in the writing up of the research.

Concerned with understanding perspectives of participants, a qualitative, interpretive approach was utilised. In line with an ethic of care, participants are human beings who should not be objects of research but people with whom we create a connection. It ‘requires that we learn from and listen to others, thus enabling us to better respond to their needs’ (Ramdas 2016, 846). Qualitative research is contextual and enables the exploration of people’s experiences and the meanings they attribute to these. The participants’ worlds are socially constructed and unique to the individual. With this in mind, to obtain rich data to add to an understanding of this particular context, one to one interviews were the method used to collect data.

Krauss (2005) advocates the flexibility of interviews as a way of understanding people’s worlds. I used semi-structured interviews to explore the perspectives of student teachers and to examine their experiences of preparing to teach autistic learners whilst on the PGCE programme. Interviews cannot be viewed as ‘objective accounts of the interviewee’s reality’ (Garton and Copland 2010, 533), rather the interaction between the interviewer and interviewee is a jointly constructed dialogue. As the data comes only from what the participants tell the researcher it is suitable for gaining data on opinions and attitudes (Denscombe 2014). Miller and Glassner (in Silverman 2004, 125) highlight the argument that narratives created between an interviewer and interviewee are not representative of ‘some “truth” in the world’ but ‘invented … to fit the demands of the interactive context of the interview, and representative of nothing more or less’. However, perspectives of status can have a significant impact on the quality of the interview (King, Horrocks, and Brooks 2019). People respond differently depending on how they perceive the interviewer (Denscombe 2014). The participants were students on the programmes I teach on and due to this fiduciary relationship of unequal power there was a danger that the participants could answer the questions in a way they think is socially desirable and not aligned with their daily behaviour (Avramidis and Norwich 2002). Lincoln and Guba (1985, 257) assert ‘the ultimate credibility of the outcomes depends upon the extent to which trust has been established’. Explaining the goals of the research and reiterating that participation would have no impact on the participants’ studies supported a more collaborative process. It was important to try to relax the participant through building up a rapport; however, it was equally necessary not to use my dominant position as the researcher to invade the participant’s privacy through masquerading ‘as a friend to get the information’ (Kvale 2006, 497) needed. The intimate nature of the interview between two people provides a basis for an ethics of care. Denscombe (2014) suggests trust and rapport are key to enable the interviewee to open up on the topic, so interviewing requires the researcher to be fully present to another human being. This connection with another, who has given their time and their story to the researcher, should be respected and cared for and reported in a way that others may benefit (Donalek 2005).

The first 4 of the 10 interviews were held in a small meeting room at the college where I work and where the participants study. This familiarity with the surroundings aided in relaxing the participants which I hoped would enable them to be more forthcoming with their responses than if they had been in an unfamiliar setting. Due to the impact of a global pandemic during the data collection phase I sought permission from the University of Glasgow’s Ethics Committee to add an alternative method of data collection. Zoom, a popular video conferencing platform able to securely record sessions, was used in place of face-to-face interviews and I conducted audio-only interviews from my home. This substitution allowed me to continue to collect data and include those participants who had agreed to take part prior to lockdown but whose interviews were postponed due to college closures. Interviewing people online during a global pandemic where there has been much disruption to people’s lives was carefully considered. The well-being of the participants had to be the first consideration. It would not be appropriate to put anyone under additional stress in these circumstances. However, I still wanted to give those who had said they would like to participate an opportunity to do so.

A philosophy based on relations, the ethics of care (Noddings 1986), provided a role in the way the research was designed. Research involving people is relational with the emphasis on ‘experiences and subjectivity, on close personal interaction, and on reciprocity of researcher and the researched’ (Kvale 2006, 481). The essential characteristic of an ethic of care is that the relational is more important than the individual (Noddings 1986). Noddings (2002, 86) highlights that we can ‘care about’ people from a distance but this does not involve reciprocal interactions. However, ‘caring-for’ involves relationships with those close to us and argues that ‘theoretically, it is vital to place “caring for” over “caring about”’. Ethics of care is not only a useful lens through which to view the findings of my research, it underpinned the project throughout from the research design, initial connection to the participants, through data collection and analysis and including the final write up and presentation of the findings.

There were 10 participants in total. Out of these 10, all the participants had at least some experience teaching or supporting autistic learners either prior to starting their teaching qualification or during their teaching placement. The following table (Figure 1) provides a summary of relevant contextual information of the participants. Pseudonyms are used to protect the identity of the participants.

Figure 1. Overview of participants.

Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data (Braun and Clarke 2006). Thematic analysis is an iterative process that categorises patterns of meaning across the data (Cluley 2018). To support analysis, I immersed myself in the data through listening to audio recordings time and again. Through thorough and repetitive listening, I sought to faithfully interpret what was heard with ‘honesty and integrity’ (Clough and Nutbrown 2007, 95). Themes emerged as I became immersed in the data. Through sorting, exploring commonalities and combining and grouping codes, master themes emerged. These categories were used to inform the organisation of the findings.

Findings

In this section, I will discuss my interview data to examine student teachers’ understanding of, perceptions towards, and experiences of the inclusion of autistic learners.

Varied experiences of working with autistic learners

Student teachers reported various experiences of teaching autistic learners from no experience at all to placements in autism-specific provisions. Opinions on how well the PGCE programme prepares student teachers to support autistic learners were mixed. Those doing the learning difficulties and disabilities (LDD) pathway felt they were prepared and had the theoretical knowledge and practical experience to include autistic learners. Those student teachers who took other pathways, that is the Young People and Adults, English Literacy and ESOL and Maths and Numeracy, reported differing degrees of preparedness, both in terms of theory and practice. Whether the inclusion of autistic learners should be considered as a separate topic was the most striking in terms of differing viewpoints. Student teachers doing the LDD pathway felt strongly that autism should be included on ITE programmes to support understanding of needs and reduce exclusion. However, it was felt by the majority of participants on other pathways that autism, although interesting to consider, and important to explore on LDD specialist pathways, should not be given more of a focus than any other disability.

Communication differences

Most participants discussed the significance of communication with learners and gave examples of how they have adapted resources or strategies to support interaction and develop independence. Sophie also mentioned the ‘little eye contact’ between herself and a learner which she felt was a barrier to communication. However, as Sophie was ‘aware of the issues with communication’, she explained how she had built up their relationship over time in order that she could support the individual to learn. She did this by asking questions about his work and although at first, she said she only got one word replies, the responses became more detailed ‘as we became more familiar with each other’, thus demonstrating the importance of building relationships with learners. Similarly, Michelle discussed the importance of not putting a learner ‘in an uncomfortable situation’ such as talking in front of the whole class in group discussions. She reflected on the time she had set up such an activity; the learner had removed himself from the classroom to go to the toilet and had not returned for 45 minutes thus avoiding the situation and pressure to participate. Since that experience, Michelle adjusted her methods and found the learner could participate in small group discussions where she was able to assess his understanding and progress in a less demanding environment.

How instructions were given and received was also discussed by some participants. Suzy explained the need to ‘triple check’ directions given to the learner in class as although ‘he is perfectly capable of doing it’, she worried the literal interpretation of instructions could sometimes be misunderstood. Paul was also aware of possible literal interpretation and suggested putting a ‘strategy in to cope with that’. Such a strategy might include visual instructions but being aware of the phrases used in class was an important consideration for Sophie who was positive in suggesting how she might adapt her language to support communication stating:

I’m kind of aware of the issues with communication, with verbal communication that autistic people can have, where you know if somebody says something in jest or is metaphor, that it can be construed as being very straight and categoric statement by a person with autism. So being aware of the language that I use and how I conduct myself in conversation with them, I mean, that was something that I also learned to become aware of.

These examples show that awareness of the possibility of literal interpretation and strategies to mitigate the chances of this happening were met with positive attitudes. However, not all issues were felt to be as easy to deal with. Suzy discussed the difficulties that one of her learners had with organisation of his file and how she struggled to not take over and do it for him. She explained how she tried to support this learner:

I brought him some file dividers and got him to sit and write the modules on the sides and I said, right so all of those, and I tried to, now what I found very hard actually was not doing it myself. When I was sitting there watching him do it, I found that really hard because I’m quite an organised person, so I just found it really, that was really tricky because he obviously took way longer than I would have taken doing it for him. So that was quite a tricky thing.

Suzy explained the contradiction she felt between wanting to do it for him to save time and understanding that to do that would be reducing his autonomy as a learner. Similarly, Diane recounted an example of how she had created a resource to support a learner’s independence. The learner could not understand complex instructions and so instead of providing multiple verbal instructions, she broke each request down to one, for example, ‘please bring the blue pot of paint’ before moving on to the next instruction, ‘now can you please bring the green one’. Diane added that a visual timetable ‘works really well’ for this learner, showing an understanding of the effectiveness of visuals to support communication. Robert also mentioned ‘picture boards’ to support daily routines with learners on the autistic spectrum. Commenting on the need for such aids to be personalised he said, ‘you tailor your approach to the individual’.

Demonstrating insight into communication and language difficulties, Diane commented on the need to ‘learn their language’ and recalled an action learning project she had undertaken as part of her PGCE where she created puppets to support communication with an autistic learner:

One day we were out shopping for supplies for our arts and crafts club and she [the learner] saw these two hand puppets. It was the first time I heard her talking by herself. She said ‘Fluffy’ and she touched this white rabbit … .I bought the puppets and straightaway we started to act using them and it went so well … .I said, ‘Oh, where did you go today?’ And she’s saying, ‘oh, I went to the town, I went shopping and I went out for a drink’. It was absolutely fascinating how well she would speak when it wasn’t her that was speaking, it was the puppet.

Diane went on to say how these puppets are now pinned to the board and the learner uses them to communicate with others enabling her control over her interactions. Having responded to the learner’s interests, Diane had been able to use puppets to develop communication and support interaction between herself and the learner.

These examples have shown how the student teachers have demonstrated positive attitudes to inclusion through the successful adaptation of their resources, delivery approaches or demands to accommodate different learners’ communication methods and interaction skills.

Sensory differences

The majority of the research participants did not mention sensory differences but those with close personal experiences did, and these participants highlighted the importance of teachers understanding sensory differences in order to support individual learners to successfully participate in education. Pat discussed how neuro sensitivity can affect ‘interaction with the world’ and how noisy environments can ‘be a nightmare for a child with neuro sensitivity’. She explained how the young man she knew personally could not cope with queuing and the noise such circumstances generated. Such situations could be incredibly distressing, and this was something Isla highlighted with regards to her brother:

on sports day I had to go in and act as support because it’s a day that he couldn’t handle, and he didn’t qualify for support. I mean, it got to a point where he ran into a bush because everything was so overwhelming for him. I was sitting there and trying and trying to coax him out. I was like you can do this and all the teachers were sort of watching me, you know, and I was like fine you just stand there.

Isla recalled the experiences she had escorting her younger brother home on the public bus. Sensitive to loud noises, her brother would attempt to kick other passengers for being loud stating ‘if somebody is being loud, they’re hurting me. So, I want to hurt them’. Isla developed strategies such as sitting at the back of the bus and providing headphones for her brother to block out the noise. Other situations where sensory processing was an issue were public toilets with noisy hand-dryers and anywhere with crowds.

Like Isla, Melanie also has a younger sibling, a sister who is autistic, and attributes her initial knowledge and interest in autism to the experiences with her sister. Melanie said, ‘through having a younger sister who’s autistic, you learn a lot about autism’. Melanie described one of the learners’ sensory preferences:

he likes to put his face up at the light, like actually like have his face up against the light. And he likes to like touch the bubbles and he’s always bouncing on the gym ball and he likes playdough or anything you can play with in your hand.

For both Isla and Melanie, a key concern was how teachers did not understand the sensory perception differences of autistic learners. Diane shared this concern and drew on her experiences of supply work in schools stating learners on the autism spectrum had ‘a lack of support’ as teachers ‘didn’t have an understanding of the autism’. Diane explained how learners in her specialist autism college were provided with fidget gadgets, headphones and regular learning breaks to support self-regulation and she felt this was missing in the mainstream provisions she had worked in.

Behaviour

Disruptive or challenging behaviour was highlighted by Paul, Melanie, Sophie, Robert, and Michelle as a characteristic associated with autism. The behaviour experienced by the participants was described by both Paul and Michelle as ‘disruptive’ and by Sophie as ‘quite challenging … irrational … withdrawn … and anti-social’ which led her to conclude that autistic learners should be included as long as their behaviour does not negatively impact on others. The impact of behaviour on other learners was a concern Paul raised stating ‘it’s where they’re starting to disrupt the class then I think we start to have an issue’. He recalled the impulsivity of one learner who would constantly shout out the answers in class and although Paul was happy that he was ‘so eager to please and learn’, this impacted on his ability to assess the progress of other learners during whole-class question and answer segments. In addition to the effect on other learners, the emotional impact on the student teachers of how to manage behaviour they perceived as difficult was demonstrated in Michelle’s recollection of coaching a learner. She recounted how ‘the first few weeks I was coming home, and I was ragging my hair out and I thought this child is absolutely running rings around me’.

Both Robert and Melanie recounted instances of physically challenging behaviour they had experienced in specialist provisions. Robert spoke of his past experiences supporting a learner:

He had these issues, you know, things like trying to punch through windows, you know, kick through doors, you know, things like that.

Although faced with this behaviour, Robert recounted how such incidents arose when there was a communication breakdown. Robert spoke about the first time he was involved in a restraint, describing it as a ‘shock to the system’. The importance of team working and support from colleagues to deescalate behaviours or take it in turns to take breaks when dealing with an ongoing behavioural incident was something Robert found valuable in his experiences. Although Robert’s experiences were prior to doing his teaching qualification, Melanie’s experiences of behaviour that challenges were recent. Melanie gained employment in an autism-specific school towards the end of her PGCE. At the time of the interview, she was on sick leave from work due to an injury from an incident with a learner. She explained:

He just grabbed my hand and just pulled me and he was ragging me all over. But like there’s just loads, loads that happens in the classroom. Like sometimes it can just happen so randomly, and you don’t even expect it and you don’t even know why. Or sometimes you do try all the sort of strategies and just the behaviours come out anyway.

Relationships with learners

Building relationships with learners and getting to know them as individuals was highlighted by some of the participants as important to the role of a teacher. Robert commented ‘it takes time but once you have got those connections, then you can use that connection to develop the learners’. Robert talked about how he would find out about a learner’s interests to engage and motivate them in a learning activity and commented on how regardless of context, the importance of relationships is key:

I’ve worked in lots of settings where I’ve had to deal with people and I think it is that building of that relationship with the people that you’re dealing with, whatever scenario it is. I think trust, if you can get people to trust you, then they can open up to you.

One of the situations Robert shared was when he was working with a learner who required three to one support for behaviour. Robert’s anxiety about being in this unfamiliar situation caused him to be hesitant when interacting with the learner but he explained ‘I had to get over that, you know, reluctance sometimes when I first started working with him’ and went on to explain how he developed a bond with the learner through sharing meals and playing ball games.

Sarah talked about how she had developed a relationship with a young person in her class through first observing him before initiating conversations. She explained that as he was hyperactive, on first meeting him she thought he was going to be disruptive. However, he became very interested in the topic of maths and surprised his parents when on parents evening, they received positive feedback and praise on his engagement in sessions and progress with learning. Sarah explained how the parents ‘couldn’t believe it’ as they were expecting a negative report on how ‘he’s a real troublemaker’. Sarah’s advice to new student teachers was to ‘talk to your students. Just general chit chat and pay attention to what they’re saying, how they’re saying it, what they’re doing’. Developing a safe learning environment through making the learners feel comfortable was mentioned by Paul who highlighted the importance of being able to laugh with learners and the need to balance this with behavioural expectations to create a supportive and relaxed learning environment. Paul stated:

I quickly developed quite a good relationship with that group. They knew where I stood, I knew where they stood, we had a laugh with them, you know, we can have a laugh, have a bit of a joke and carry on. But at the same time, they knew they had to get the work done.

Sophie attributed her own developing relationships with the learners to showing interest in their work and their goals and aspirations and the fact that she ‘would pretty consistently always emphasise that I am there to help them’. However, she had previously been concerned that the learners did not like her and worried that she had done something to upset them, she explained:

I thought there was an issue with me and maybe I said something that offended them, or I had a tone in my voice that they took the wrong way.

Talking of the importance of developing relationships, Sophie stated the important things to remember are ‘to have patience and to not take things personally and to be open to co-operation. It’s a two-way street’, emphasising the importance of reciprocal relationships between teachers and learners.

Discussion

Given the lack of academic research focusing specifically on student teachers’ knowledge about inclusion with respect to autistic students in the post-compulsory sector, this study attempted to address an important area in the literature.

Autism was described by 9 out of 10 participants in relation to communication differences. For example, Sophie mentioned how autism can impact on social interaction and Isla referred to autism as a ‘social communication disorder’. The impact on differences in how a person communicates with and relates to other people (NAS 2024) is especially important when considering ethics of care as this approach is ‘fundamentally relational’ (Noddings 2002, xiii). Communication with autistic learners needs to take into account these differences and preferred ways of communicating in order that the intended inclusive and caring practice is actually received by the person as caring. Difficulties in navigating social communication can result in the teacher, as the one caring, making decisions based on their own ideas of how they would like to be cared for instead of considering how that caring act is being received. An assumption of what constitutes care may be detrimental to the relationship between the teacher and the learner. Noddings (2002) highlights the requirement of responding to individuals and their differing needs. An understanding of autism and individual communication needs could support the inclusion of autistic learners. Noddings (2012, 773) states that ‘the response of the cared-for completes the caring relation’. However, the absence of recognition and responsiveness from some autistic learners towards the teacher and lack of demonstrable appreciation which may arise from not understanding the social expectations, may result in a negative interaction and affect the relationship between the carer – the teacher, and the cared for – the learner.

Pat, Diane, Melanie and Isla all discussed sensory differences and the impact this can have on teaching and learning when those responsible for teaching do not have an awareness of variations in sensory perception. This understanding of sensory differences and the importance of ensuring the environment is autism friendly demonstrates how knowledge can impact on caring for others. As an ethics of care is a needs and response-based ethic (Noddings 1992), teachers have a responsibility to attend to the sensory needs of learners. If teachers are uninformed of the impact the environment can have on learners, they may not even think about making adaptations and this can limit participation in opportunities (Kirby, Dickie, and Baranek 2015). This lack of attention to the senses may impact on the inclusion of autistic learners as learners may withdraw from ‘overwhelming sensation’ (Singer 2017) or display behaviour which might be interpreted as challenging (Lawson 2011) as a reaction to the inhospitable setting.

Disruptive or challenging behaviour was highlighted by Paul, Melanie, Sophie, Robert, and Michelle as a characteristic associated with autism. The behaviour experienced by the participants was described by both Paul and Michelle as ‘disruptive’ and by Sophie as ‘quite challenging … irrational … withdrawn … and anti-social’. Attempts to self-regulate through leaving the classroom for 45 minutes as described by Sophie, is often a result of overwhelming sensory input leading to heightened anxiety (Bogdashina 2005; Davidson 2007; Pellicano 2013). Enhanced anxiety might lead to outward aggression which Lawson (2011) suggests may be due to the inability to cope with the situation. Both Robert and Melanie recounted instances of challenging physical behaviour they had experienced in specialist provisions. Robert explained how these experiences had led to his understanding of managing behaviour. Although Melanie highlighted how the reason for behaviour may not be apparent to others, she commented on using pro-active strategies to support learners demonstrating attentiveness to those she has responsibility for which, as suggested by Held (2005) is the main focus of an ethic of care.

As described by Lawson (2011) and Williams (1996), sensory perception differences can result in elevated stress levels for autistic people and can impact on behaviour. The behaviour displayed is often an attempt to escape or block out the overwhelming sensory input experienced by the person. In a school or college, whether mainstream or specialist, there are a multitude of factors that can impact on or overload sensory receptors, for example crowds and noise. When teachers are unaware of such differences and how they can affect a person’s ability to cope in the environment, this can become a problem. For example, Isla discussed her brother’s response to a school sport’s day event and how he hid to escape the situation. Intensified stress such as this can lead to behaviour which is not understood and therefore perceived as challenging. An understanding of the impact of the environment on learners’ behaviour has the potential to result in changes being made to the setting by a teacher who could take the time to care to find out underlying causes and adjust accordingly to ensure the learner is comfortable in the environment.

Tronto and Fisher (1990) identified four phrases of care and suggest this be used as a framework for change. The four phrases are described as: caring about, caring for, care giving and care receiving. To care about requires paying attention to the needs of others, whether these are articulated or not and making a decision to be attentive to that need. Caring for is to take on the responsibility to meet the identified needs. Care giving is the actual material meeting of the need in a competent manner and care receiving requires responsiveness of the person who has received the care; this will happen whether the care giving was successful or not.

It is essential to care for teachers coming into the profession and undertaking teaching qualifications to support them to consider the diversity of learners and put those learners at the forefront. This idea corresponds to the first phase of care proposed by Tronto (1993), to care about, which involves attention to the needs of others. The second dimension of care, as suggested by Tronto (1993) is that of responsibility. There are contractual obligations a teacher must fulfil but in addition to these responsibilities is the responsibility to care for their learners. What this entails in practice can be ambiguous, but examples from the participants suggest a responsiveness to the needs of their learners, thus demonstrating care. For example, Diane explained how she bought puppets in response to seeing a learner engage with these and developed interaction with said learner through the utilisation of the puppets. This supported the learner to develop their voice and initiate interaction. This responsiveness for taking responsibility to attend to the needs of others is a fundamental focus of the ethics of care.

The competence to care, or care giving to ensure care needs are met, is the third factor stated by Tronto (1993). The interaction between the teacher and the learner within the learning environment, through talking, explaining, and providing feedback are examples of care giving. The actions taken in an attempt to care for their learners might not always be received as caring. For example, Michelle, attempting with the best of intentions to include an autistic learner in a group discussion, resulted in the learner leaving the classroom for 45 minutes due to anxiety induced by the situation. Understanding and ensuring needs are addressed in a way desired by the cared for is important to support inclusion. However, communication with individuals on the autism spectrum might be more difficult for student teachers to facilitate, as Noddings (1992, 124) explains there may be a distance ‘because we have difficulty in either eliciting or recognizing forms of response’.

The fourth dimension of care Tronto (1993) discusses is responsiveness. Responsiveness

suggests that we consider the other’s position as that other expresses it. Thus, one is engaged from the standpoint of the other, but not simply by presuming that the other is exactly like the self. (Tronto 1993, 136)

This is important to highlight as there are neurological differences to consider when preparing the learning environment for the inclusion of autistic learners. In particular sensory differences, a concern for four of the participants but not mentioned by the other six, would be beneficial to include on ITE programmes to support the student teachers to see things from a different point of view, the view of the learner which may be different to their own perspective. Tronto (1993, 157) asserts ‘to care well involves engagement in an ethical practice of complex moral judgments’. However, if student teachers are not informed about autism, the judgements they make regarding their own teaching practice with autistic learners may be flawed. An understanding of sensory differences would support responsiveness and inclusive practice as Norwich and Nash (2011, 3) state inclusivity involves recognising ‘individual characteristics and making some response to them as part of the general system of education’.

Concluding remarks

Care may not be the panacea to ensure all autistic learners are included, however studies have shown that teacher care has a positive impact on inclusion (Tang, Walker-Gleaves, and Rattray 2021). A critical dimension of the concept of care in education is its potentiality for solidarity and inclusion. This can be partially achieved through ensuring teachers in the post-compulsory sector are appropriately qualified and experienced to confidently include autistic learners. The onus is on teacher educators to take a central role in ensuring ITE programmes address neurodiversity sufficiently in order that the education system becomes more equitable. The more student teachers understand about autism, communication, sensory differences and behaviour, the more they can affect social justice starting with inclusive practice in their own teaching environments. A caring pedagogy with a focus on inclusion could help to address inequalities of access to education and bring about fairer educational success for autistic learners.

It is crucial to remember that autism is a lifelong condition. Children grow up to be adults and with that in mind, it is important to enable equity at each life stage. An understanding of how autism might impact on a person’s ability to access education and employment should be held by all teachers regardless of whether they work in the compulsory or post-compulsory sector. Teachers have the power to affect positive change and through their practice they can model inclusive approaches. Teacher educators can facilitate discussion around autism, inclusion, and caring relationships. An exploration of the work of Noddings 1986; 2002; 2012) and Tronto (1993) on ITE programmes could be an effective way of provoking discussion around inclusion and attitudes towards the diversity of learners. Through utilising the philosophy of care ethics in this way, a conversation can be started around how we can move towards a more socially just society which values and respects neurodiversity. Care pedagogies and their potential to affect change to support inclusion in the post-compulsory sector is worthy of further exploration.

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