Mullah Abdullah, A Mullah? A Reassessment of the Assertions and the Evidence

Abstract

On January 1, 1915, Gool Badsha Muhammad and Mullah Abdullah shot at a picnic train as it left the city of Broken Hill, Australia, headed towards the village of Silverton, killing four and wounding seven. Had it not been for this horrific act and tragic loss of life, it is likely that little would be remembered of the perpetrators. The focus of this paper is to provide a reassessment of the often-reiterated claim that Mullah Abdullah was the mullah, imam, or “Islamic priest” of the Cameleer community in Broken Hill. After examining scholarly literature evidence will be drawn, primarily from newspaper reports of the period to assess what, if any, support there is for this claim. The paper will utilize comments made within the newspaper reports regarding Mullah Abdullah in order to examine the extent to which he could have been considered a religious leader amongst his community.

Keywords:

• Australian cameleers
• battle of broken hill
• Mullah Abdullah
• colonialism
• Australia

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Pamela Rajkowski, In the Track of the Camelmen, St Marys: Openbook Howden Print & Design, 2021, p. 157.

2 Christine Stevens, Tin Mosques and Ghantowns, Alice Springs: Paul Fitzsimons, 2002, pp. 161–162.

3 Christine Stevens, “Abdullah, Mullah (c. 1855–1915),” Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, published first in hardcopy 2005, https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/abdullah-mullah-12763/text23021 (accessed 20 May 2022). ; Christine Stevens, “Mahomed, Gool Badsha (1875–1915),” Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, published first in hardcopy 2005, https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/mahomed-gool-badsha-13288/text23021 (accessed 20 May 2022).

4 Christine Stevens, “Abdullah, Mullah (c. 1855–1915),” Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, published first in hardcopy 2005, https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/abdullah-mullah-12763/text23021 (accessed 20 May 2022); Christine Stevens, “Mahomed, Gool Badsha (1875–1915),” Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, published first in hardcopy 2005, https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/mahomed-gool-badsha-13288/text23021 (accessed 20 May 2022).

5 Philip Jones and Anna Kenny, Australia’s Muslim Cameleers, Kent Town: Wakefield Press, 2007, p. 182.

6 Bilal Cleland, The Muslims in Australia A Brief History, Victoria: Gill Miller Press, 2002, p. 47.

7 Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, “Broken Hill Attack 1915 – Revisited: A Battle Fought for Gallipoli on Australia Soil,” in Gallipoli Campaign 1915: History, Economy, Literature and Art, ed. Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, Mehmet Bulut, and Ibrahim G. Yumusak, Istanbul: Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 2017, p. 136.

8 Panayiotis Diamadis, “History Repeating: From the Battle of Broken Hill to the Sands of Syria,” The Conversation, October 3, 2014. https://theconversation.com/history-repeating-from-the-battle-of-broken-hill-to-the-sands-of-syria-32146 (accessed 11 May 2022).

9 Kallie Szczepanski, “Islamic Mullah,” ThoughtCo, October 16, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-mullah-195356 (accessed 11 May 2022).

10 Kallie Szczepanski, “Islamic Mullah,” ThoughtCo, October 16, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-mullah-195356 (accessed 11 May 2022).

11 Kamal Matinuddin, The Taliban Phenomenon: Afghanistan 1994–1997, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 15–16.

12 Kallie Szczepanski, “Islamic Mullah,” ThoughtCo, October 16, 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-mullah-195356 (accessed 11 May 2022).

13 Oliver Roy, The Failure of Political Islam, trans. Carol Volk, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994, p. 29.

14 “The Office of Mullah,” Advertiser, August 18, 1927, p. 14.

15 Kamal Matinuddin, The Taliban Phenomenon: Afghanistan 1994–1997, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 16.

16 “News in Brief,” Western Star and Roma Advertiser, August 20, 1927, p. 1.

17 “Mosque Defiled,” The Register, August 12, 1927, p. 12.

18 “The Office of Mullah,” Advertiser, August 18, 1927, p. 14.

19 “The Office of Mullah,” Advertiser, August 20, 1927, p. 17.

20 Pamela Rajkowski, In the Track of the Camelmen, St Marys: Openbook Howden Print & Design, 2021, p. 63.

21 Christine Stevens, Tin Mosques and Ghantowns, Alice Springs: Paul Fitzsimons, 2002, p. 184.

22 “Hajji” being a title indicating an individual who has completed the pilgrimage to Mecca.

23 Nile Green, “Afghanistan’s Islam: A History and Its Scholarship,” in Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban, ed. Nile Green, Oakland: University of California Press, 2017, pp. 19–20.

24 Christine Stevens, Tin Mosques and Ghantowns, Alice Springs: Paul Fitzsimons, 2002, pp. 155–156.

25 Abu Bakr Sirajuddin Cook, “Tasawwuf ‘Usturaliya: Prolegomena to a History of Sufism in Australia,” Australian Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 3, 2018, pp. 72–73.

26 Karine Megerdoomain, The Structure of Afghan Names, MITRE, 2009, p. 4.

27 “The New Year’s Day Massacre. Thrilling Experiences. The Murderers: Who and What They Were. A Night of Riot. German Club Premises Fired. Asiatic Camp Threatened. Inquest on the Victims Opened. The Turk Attackers: Who and What They Were,” Barrier Miner, January 2, 1915, p. 4. Reported again in “The Broken Hill Sensation. Story of the Tragedy. The Two Murderers Smoked Indian Hemp,” Express Telegraph, January 4, 1915, p. 4, and “Wild Scenes at Broken Hill. Furious Crowds. Result of Train Outrage German Club Burned. The Fisht with the Turks,” Sydney Morning Herald, January 4, 1915, p. 10.

28 Karijn Bonne and Wim Verbeke, “Religious Values Informing Halah Meat Production and the Control and Delivery of Halal Credence Quality,” Agriculture and Human Values, Vol. 25, 2008, p. 38.

29 Ali Abdallah, Mohammed Abdel Rahem, and Antonella Pasqualone, “The multiplicity of halal Standards: A Case Study of Application to Slaughterhouses,” Journal of Ethnic Foods, Vol. 8, No. 7, 2021, p. 3.

30 Karijn Bonne and Wim Verbeke, “Religious Values Informing Halah Meat Production and the Control and Delivery of Halal Credence Quality,” Agriculture and Human Values, Vol. 25, 2008, p. 41; Muslim World League and the World Health Organization, Islamic Ruling on Animal Slaughter, Alexandria: World Health Organisation, 1997, p. 10.

31 Christine Stevens, Tin Mosques and Ghantowns, Alice Springs: Paul Fitzsimons, 2002, pp. 161–162.

32 “Inquest on the Turks. Today’s Proceedings. The Alleged Confessions. Translations Presented in Court. The Verdict. Shot Justifiably in Self-Defence,” Barrier Miner, January 12, 1915, p. 2.

33 Ibid.

34 Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, “Broken Hill Attack 1915 – Revisited: A Battle Fought for Gallipoli on Australia Soil,” in Gallipoli Campaign 1915: History, Economy, Literature and Art, ed. Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, Mehmet Bulut, and Ibrahim G. Yumusak, Istanbul: Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 2017, p. 150.

35 “Licenses and Registrations,” Barrier Miner, January 26, 1912, p. 5.

36 “Bylaw Broken,” Barrier Miner, April 27, 1914, p. 8.

37 “Butcher Fined,” Barrier Miner, December 18, 1914, p. 3.

38 “Licences under the ‘Second-Hand Dealers and Collectors Act, 1906’,” Government Gazette of the State of New South Wales, February 18, 1914, p. 1083.

39 “Outlawry. Train Attacked by Turks. Four Passengers Killed. Seven Wounded. Fight with the Police Assailants Shot. Broken Hill,” Sydney Morning Herald, January 2, 1915, p. 11.

40 “Mullah Abdullah’s Nationality,” Barrier Miner, January 7, 1915, p. 2.

41 “The New Year’s Day Massacre. Thrilling Experiences. The Murderers: Who and What They Were. A Night of Riot. German Club Premises Fired. Asiatic Camp Threatened. Inquest on the Victims Opened. The Turk Attackers: Who and What They Were,” Barrier Miner, January 2, 1915, p. 4.

42 “Two Rooms Destroyed,” Barrier Miner, January 1913, p. 4.

43 “The New Year’s Day Tragedy. The Cartridges Used. Where They Came From. Leading Storekeeper’s Statement,” Barrier Miner, January 7, p. 1.

44 “Outlawry. Train Attacked by Turks. Four Passengers Killed. Seven Wounded. Fight with the Police Assailants Shot. Broken Hill,” Sydney Morning Herald, January 2, 1915, p. 11.

45 ibid.

46 “Inquest on the Turks. Today’s Proceedings. The Alleged Confessions. Translations Presented in Court. The Verdict. Shot Justifiably in Self-Defence,” Barrier Miner, January 12, 1915, p. 2.

47 Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, “Broken Hill Attack 1915 – Revisited: A Battle Fought for Gallipoli on Australia Soil,” in Gallipoli Campaign 1915: History, Economy, Literature and Art, ed. Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, Mehmet Bulut, and Ibrahim G. Yumusak, Istanbul: Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 2017, p. 150.

48 Ahmed Mohsen al-Dawoody, “War in Islamic Law: Justifications and Regulations,” (PhD Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2009), p. 201.

49 Ahmed al-Dawoody, “Islamic Law and International Humanitarian Law: An Introduction to the Main Principles,” International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 99, No. 3, 2017, p. 1002.

50 “Assassin’s Bodies. Grave-Digging Stopped. But Disposed of,” Barrier Miner, January 4, 1915, p. 2.

51 Muhammad Munir, “The Prophet (Peace Ben on Him)’s Merciful Reforms in the Conduct of War: The Prohibited Acts,” Insights, Vol. 2, No. 2-3, 2010, p. 208.

52 Tauseef Ahmad Parray, “The Legal Methodology of ‘Fiqh al-Aqalliyyat’ and its Critics: An Analytical Study,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2012, p. 92.

53 “The New Year’s Day Massacre. Thrilling Experiences. The Murderers: Who and What They Were. A Night of Riot. German Club Premises Fired. Asiatic Camp Threatened. Inquest on the Victims Opened. The Turk Attackers: Who and What They Were (By ‘One Who Knew Them’.),” Barrier Miner, January 2, 1915, p. 4; “The Broken Hill Sensation. Story of the Tragedy. The Two Murderers Smoked Indian Hemp,” Express Telegraph, January, Vol. 4, 1915, p. 4.

54 “Outside the Mosque. Cause of the Barrier Tragedy. A Strange Story. Probably the Result of Using Drugs,” The Mail, January 2, 1915, p. 1.

55 Ibid.

56 “Barrier Tragedy. Evidence from the Mosque. ‘Ganga’, A Vile Drug, Causes Indians to Run Amok. Remarkable Theory Supported by Medical Men. Burning of the German Club. Union Jack Hoisted,” The Mail, January 2, 1915, p. 1.

57 “Murderers Addicted to Drugs,” Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners’ Advocate, January 4, 1915, p. 4.

58 “New Year’s Day Tragedy. Inquest On the Turks,” Barrier Miner, January 8, 1915, p. 4.

59 Gabriel G. Nahas, “Hashish in Islam: 9th to 18^th Century,” Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol. 58, No. 9, 1982, p. 824.

60 ibid.

61 “Outside the Mosque. Cause of the Barrier Tragedy. A Strange Story. Probably the Result of Using Drugs,” The Mail, January 2, 1915, p. 1.

62 Mansur Ali, “Perspectives on Drug Addiction in Islamic History and Theology,” Religions, Vol. 5, 2014, p. 913.

63 “Outlawry. Train Attacked by Turks. Four Passengers Killed. Seven Wounded. Fight with the Police Assailants Shot. Broken Hill,” Sydney Morning Herald, January 2, 1915, p. 11.

64 Ibid.

65 “Inquest on the Turks. Today’s Proceedings. The Alleged Confessions. Translations Presented in Court. The Verdict. Shot Justifiably in Self-Defence,” Barrier Miner, January 12, 1915, p. 2.

66 Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, “Broken Hill Attack 1915 – Revisited: A Battle Fought for Gallipoli on Australia Soil,” in Gallipoli Campaign 1915: History, Economy, Literature and Art, ed. Mehmet Mehdi Ilhan, Mehmet Bulut, and Ibrahim G. Yumusak, Istanbul: Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim Üniversitesi Yayinlari, 2017, p. 150.

67 “The New Year’s Day Massacre. Thrilling Experiences. The Murderers: Who and What They Were. A Night of Riot. German Club Premises Fired. Asiatic Camp Threatened. Inquest on the Victims Opened. The Turk Attackers: Who and What They Were (By ‘One Who Knew Them’.),” Barrier Miner, January 2, 1915, p. 4; “The Broken Hill Sensation. Story of the Tragedy. The Two Murderers Smoked Indian Hemp,” Express Telegraph, January 4, 1915, p. 4.

68 “Assassin’s Bodies. Grave-Digging Stopped. But Disposed of,” Barrier Miner, January 4, 1915, p. 2.

69 “The Barrier,” The Sydney Morning Herald, September 1, 1910, p. 7.

70 “Camel-Driver’s Quarrel,” The Sydney Morning Herald, August 25, 1910, p. 10.

71 “The Barrier,” The Register, September 2, 1910, p. 6.

72 “At the North Camel Camp. A Demonstration and a Check. Police and Military First on the Spot,” Barrier Miner, January 2, 1915, p. 5.

73 Reported again in “The Broken Hill Sensation. Story of the Tragedy. The Two Murderers Smoked Indian Hemp,” Express Telegraph, January 4, 1915, p. 4

74 “The Mohammedan Mosque Desecrated at Broken Hill,” Port Pirie Recorder and North Western Mail, January 8, 1915, p. 4.

75 Christine Stevens, Tin Mosques and Ghantowns, Alice Springs: Paul Fitzsimons, 2002, p. 164.

76 Dzavid Haveric, Muslims Making Australia Home, Carlton: Melbourne University Press, 2019, p. 226. For a stronger case for the history of Sufism in Australia, and particularly Broken Hill, see Abu Bakr Sirajuddin Cook and Rami Dawood, “On the History of Sufism in Australia: A Manuscript from the Broken Hill Mosque,” Journal of Sufi Studies, Vol. 11, 2022, pp. 115–135.

77 See Abu Bakr Sirajuddin Cook, “The Role of the Sufi Centre Within the Muslim World,” Australian Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2017, p. 77.

78 Roberta J. Drewery, Treks, Camps and Camels: Afghan Cameleers, Their Contribution to Australia, Rockhampton: R.J. Bolton, 2008, p. 14.

79 “The Broken Hill Sensation. Story of the Tragedy. The Two Murderers Smoked Indian Hemp,” Express Telegraph, January 4, 1915, p. 4.

80 “The New Year’s Day Tragedy. The Battlefield Now a Scene of Peaceful Quiet. Bullet-Scarred Rocks,” Barrier Miner, January 6, 1915, p. 2.

 

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Abu Bakr Sirajuddin Cook

Abu Bakr Sirajuddin Cook, Ph.D. is Research Fellow at Almiraj Sufi and Islamic Study Centre, Australia. He is currently conducting research on the history of Sufism in Australia.