Social perception of the connectivity and quality of sidewalks in the Metropolitan Area of Panama

ABSTRACT

Sidewalks have become important for modern cities in order to ensure that their inhabitants can move to their different activities in an optimal and safe manner. This research examines the perception of residents of the metropolitan area of Panama on the connectivity and quality of sidewalks. The study of sidewalks has been generally focused on evaluating accessibility for people with reduced mobility and the elderly; and also, on improving pedestrian safety. Using georeferenced household surveys, we collected data with which we performed spatial analyses to illustrate the distribution of sidewalk conditions in the urban metropolitan area of Panama. In addition, through the use of various approaches, such as accessibility assessments, user surveys and road safety parameters, other analyses of importance to the research were developed. The main conclusion was that only 26.25% of the metropolitan urban area of Panama has sidewalks that allow adequate pedestrian traffic.

KEYWORDS:

• Sidewalks
• social exclusion
• spatial analysis
• urban mobility

1. Introduction

Social, economic, and technological changes in cities have led to new patterns of urban mobility, characterized by an increase in the average distances traveled, changes in the reasons for commuting and the relocation of productive activities. In particular, an increase in the average distances travelled, has led to a large part of the time dedicated to work activities, including mobility from homes to workplaces, being dedicated precisely to making these travels (Lizárraga Mollinedo, 2006).

Urban mobility refers to the idea that citizens can move in urban spaces through a multimodal local network that includes public and shared transportation modes (Jans, 2009). The concept of urban mobility incorporates a perspective of citizens in their specific socioeconomic reality, such as their ages, gender, employment status, etc. (Montezuma 2003). Urban mobility also involves the concept of accessibility, which is the ease with which citizens can cover the distance that separates them from the places where they satisfy their needs; it is also a concept of proximity, i.e. reducing travel needs; and it is linked to sustainable development, so that a sustainable mobility model ensures environmental protection, social cohesion and economic development (Mataix, 2010)

For a population to be able to commute freely in the urban space without causing negative impacts on the surrounding environment and society, is crucial to improve the sustainability of the current transport systems (Postorino & Sarné, 2020), and its accessibility. In modern days, where cities have become dangerous, polluted, and busy, sustainable mobility is encouraged. This improvement in mobility can bring many benefits to the economy, health, environment, and city development for every citizen. The purpose of sustainable mobility is to guarantee that transport systems satisfy the economic, social, and environmental needs of society while creating the smallest negative impact possible on the environment, while simultaneously enhancing the efficiency and speed of travel (Spadaro & Pirlone, 2021; Giduthuri, 2015). Walking and public transport are the fundamental pillars of sustainable transport, subject to conformity with accessibility standards, especially with regard to public transport (Corazza & Favaretto, 2019). The present growth of the demand for efficient urban transportation puts pressure on transport networks and urban planners when analyzing future possible solutions for urban mobility (Canitez et al., 2020; Melkonyan et al., 2020). Authorities have taken action towards improving sustainable urban mobility, and the idea is to create policies based on the perception of the users, and also encourage the development and usage of alternate transport modes like bicycles (dell’Olio et al., 2014).

The development of a sustainable urban transport system depends to a large extent on the perception of road users (Maciorowski & Souza, 2018). Moving towards the consideration of walking as the main mode of transport for short-distance trips (Paulssen et al., 2014). Essentially, the overall quality of service of sidewalks will affect the performance of the main roads and thus the transport system as a whole, no matter how good the roads and vehicles are (Jahan et al., 2020; Vallejo-Borda et al., 2020a). User perceptions can improve the efficiency of pedestrian models. This can also improve the predictive power of the estimation of the quality of service of the pedestrian infrastructure.

The main aim of this research is to analyze the state of the sidewalks based on the perception of the users. To achieve this objective, the social perception of connectivity and quality of sidewalks index (SPCQS) will be generated, taking into consideration different aspects that refer to spatial segregation and social inequality. Added to other variables that were taken into account for the different levels of social exclusion related to urban mobility.

2. State of knowledge

Spatial analysis is an interdisciplinary field that combines geographic information technology, cartography and spatial statistics to understand and analyze patterns, relationships and trends in geospatial data (Anselin, 1995). This area of research has experienced significant growth in recent decades due to technological advances and the increasing availability of geographic data (Li et al., 2020).

Sidewalk connectivity refers to the continuity and accessibility of pedestrian routes in urban environments. A well-connected sidewalk network is critical to encourage pedestrian mobility, improve accessibility, and create more sustainable and pedestrian-friendly cities (Rossetti et al., 2020). In the same line of research, geospatial data analysis has been implemented to identify the location of parks, assess the quality of sidewalks and streets leading to these parks, and measure the connectivity of pedestrian routes. They also consider factors such as distance and topography to assess accessibility (Woldeamanuel et al., 2020). They also analyzed the importance of open streets as a response to the need to create safe and accessible public spaces by encouraging physical activity and social connectivity, highlighting the benefits for urban mobility, public health and citizens’ quality of life. Citizen participation and data collection are key elements of this strategy (Rhoads et al., 2021).

Hennessy and Ai (2023) introduced a methodology for approximating pedestrian networks and before employing the resulting data in a comparison of the connectivity of optimal and accessible pedestrian networks. This pedestrian network approximation method used street centerline and curb ramp data in combination with GIS tools to generate optimal pedestrian networks in four metropolitan areas.

Previous studies have also examined how to measure and evaluate sidewalk connectivity, using metrics such as sidewalk length per area, number of crosswalks, and accessibility to public services. Additionally, how urban planning influences pedestrian connectivity has been explored, considering factors such as street design, sidewalk location, and pedestrian infrastructure density (Froehlich et al., 2022.). Also, studies have investigated how the perception of safety and comfort influences the use of sidewalks and how this affects pedestrian connectivity (Vallejo-Borda et al., 2020b).

3. Case of study

The metropolitan area of Panama is a crucial logistic center, thanks to the Panama Canal, one of the busiest maritime routes in the world, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal has been a determining factor in the region’s economic growth and international trade, driving foreign investment and the expansion of industries related to transportation and logistics, this function contributed to consolidating the bases of an evident difference between this transit zone and the agricultural and livestock of the countryside. Unlike other Latin American countries, Panama’s growth was driven by foreign trade. The level of connection of social groups with foreign capital defined the spaces occupied by high and low-income sectors. The cycles of economic boom or recession and their effect on the interoceanic transit through the Isthmus are reflected, particularly, in the growth or decrease of the population of the Metropolitan Region (Sandoya, 1989).

The metropolitan area of Panama is formed by the district of Panama and the district of San Miguelito, both are located in the province of Panama; and the district of Arraiján and the district of La Chorrera, located in the province of West Panama. This area has an approximate territorial extension of 329,763 hectares, of which approximately 43,897.38 hectares are urbanized, representing 13.31% of the total study area as an urbanized area. Therefore, 86.69% of the study area is a non-urban area (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Metropolitan urban area of Panama.

Map showing how the study area is composed.

The estimated population of the Panama metropolitan area for the year 2020 was 2,089,953 people (INEC, 2010). In recent years this area has experienced intense unplanned urban expansion, which has led to the need for solutions to problems caused by this social phenomenon. There is also a notable deficiency in essential services such as schools and hospitals. In addition, there is a pressing need to improve urban mobility, influenced by deficiencies in the public transportation system, despite significant investments such as the introduction of the metrobus, the creation of the Panama Metro and the expansion of road infrastructure.

According to (INEC, 2021) figures, Panama has had an average increase of vehicles in circulation of 6.33% per year. This figure is even more relevant if we compare that from 1998 to 2021, the number of vehicles in circulation increased by 151%. These data show how Panamanian society has focused its mobility on vehicles, which has had a direct impact on the development of road infrastructure, leaving the quality of pedestrian and cycling infrastructure in disuse. In several parts of the Metropolitan Area, many citizens have to walk long distances daily from their homes to the nearest bus stop to access the public transportation network. This journey is made by some citizens through spaces lacking sidewalks, with precarious lighting, in a situation of insecurity, and in some cases, traveling on roads with a high vehicular flow (Caballero et al., 2022).

4. Methodology

Figure 2 shows the methodology followed for the analysis of the social perception of the quality and connectivity of sidewalks using as a case study of the metropolitan urban Area of Panama.

Figure 2. Diagram showing the methodology used in developing the research.

Diagram of the methodology implemented in the study.

4.1. Step 1: Formulation and validation of the survey

The first step of the methodology was the formulation and validation by experts of a survey intended to evaluate some aspects of urban mobility and social exclusion. The survey items were validated through a questionnaire to experts in human and social sciences and urban mobility. For the purposes of the statistical sample collected, with an error rate of 5%.

4.2. Step 2: Collection of the surveys

A total of 2,055 household surveys were collected; using Esri’s Survey123 mobile application, which is designed for the collection and georeferencing of data in the field and sharing them online (Geman et al., 2017), this allowed us to apply the validated form with the questions and to localize the address where it was placed.

From the total sample taken in the survey, 57.47% answered in the district of Panama, 21.75% answered in the district of San Miguelito, which means that 79.22% of the concentration was in the districts with the largest number of inhabitants. This reflects a directly proportional relationship between the number of surveys and the population. 11.83% of the surveys were answered in the district of Arraiján and 8.95% in the district of La Chorrera. These districts are located in the province of West Panama and have a smaller population compared to the previous ones.

Figure 3 shows the spatial distribution of these surveys throughout the metropolitan urban area of Panama.

Figure 3. Distribution of the surveys across the metropolitan urban area of Panama.

Map showing the distribution of the surveys in the study area.

4.3. Step 3: Development of a social perception scale

For this research, it was decided to evaluate the connectivity and quality of the sidewalks, according to a Likert scale. A Likert scale is a type of scientific scale with multiple categories from which survey participants can choose depending on their ideas, perceptions, or experiences about a certain problem (Nemoto & Beglar, 2014). Table 1 shows how we implemented the Likert scale in our study.

Table 1. Question about connectivity and quality of the sidewalks.

Question	Options		Numeric corresponding value
	Connectivity (C)	Quality (Q)
If you had to walk from your home to the nearest bus stop or subway station, in relation to the sidewalks, would you say that:	There are sidewalks all the way.	Excellent condition.	5
	There are sidewalks mostly all the way.	Very good condition.	4
	There are sidewalks in partial parts of the way.	Regular condition.	3
	There are sidewalks in a few parts of the way.	Fair condition.	2
	There are no sidewalks.	Poor condition.	1
	I do not know.	I do not know.	N/A

4.4. Step 4: Sampling

Probability sampling by stratified conglomerates: Stratification by zones was carried out, starting from the political territorial units (townships) towards smaller subdivisions (zones with similar territorial characteristics, for example, neighborhoods), using a systematic sampling proportional to the number of households in each zone to assign the number of addresses to survey within each zone.

The metropolitan urban area was divided into zones taking into consideration their socioeconomic characteristics, land use and compatibility with other administrative divisions in order that each zone must be of a size such that the assumption that all their activities are concentrated in the centroid.

The social perception of the connectivity and quality of sidewalks index (SPCQS) was estimated with Equation 1. $\mathrm{SPCQS}={\displaystyle \frac{{\sum }_{i=1}^n{\displaystyle \frac{\left(C_i\right)\left(Q_i\right)}{5D_i}}}{{\sum }_{i=1}^n{\displaystyle \frac{1}{D_i}}}\left(\mathrm{equation}1\right)}$Where:

$\mathrm{SPCQS}$: estimated value of social perception of the connectivity and quality of sidewalks at the centroid of the zone p (from 1 to 5).

$n$: number of surveys in the analysis zone p.

$C_i$: Sidewalk’s connectivity according to the social perception at the i-th point (from 1 to 5).

$Q_i$: Sidewalks quality according to the social perception at the i-th point (from 1 to 5).

$D_i$: distance from the known point i to the centroid of the zone.

The range of the SPCQS index is between 1 to 5 and allows us to classify the connectivity and quality of sidewalks according to four types (Table 2).

Table 2. Type of range of values of SPCQS.

Type	Range of values
Type A	4.00 ≥ SPCQS ≥5.00
Type B	3.00 ≥ SPCQS ≥3.99
Type C	2.00 ≥ SPCQS ≥2.99
Type D	1.00 ≥ SPCQS ≥1.99

4.5. Step 5: spatial analysis

To begin this process, a data layer that contains the relevant information about the condition of sidewalks in the Panama metropolitan area is needed. This layer should include attributes that indicate the location of the sidewalks and some measures of their condition, such as grades, scores, or rankings. For our study, the geo-referenced points from the household survey were used to delimit their zones of influence. These zones were assigned centroids, and the resulting coordinates were re-inserted, thus creating a new layer formed by points. Subsequently, the data corresponding to each zone of influence were incorporated into the analysis, using the newly formed layer of points. This method facilitated the integration of the spatial data with the survey results, increasing the accuracy and completeness of the analysis. By integrating geographic information with survey data, a more nuanced understanding of the phenomena studied could be reached, providing valuable insights for decision-making processes and policy formulation.

Following the import of the data, the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) geoprocessing tool was used, which estimates the values of the cells through an interpolation that calculates the averages of the values of the data points that are used as a sample in the vicinity of each processing cell. In other words, it means that the closer a point is to the center of the estimation cell, the more influence or weight it has in the averaging process. When the geoprocessing was completed, a raster showing the calculated estimates was obtained as a result. This method was chosen because the IDW interpolation model shows higher robustness when a large number of points are used for interpolation, which also exhibits a regular spatial distribution. It is crucial to increase the number of points and to use a high weighting coefficient when interpolating in cases of high data density.

The raster generated through the IDW tool was cropped with the Clip Raster tool to obtain two new rasters in which the urbanized areas of the provinces of Panama and West Panama are shown individually. The generated rasters were then converted into polygons using the raster to polygon tool. This process was used to calculate the amount of surface area that exists for each analysis according to the type of classification range and according to the province within the study area.

Once the interpolation is completed, a map is generated showing the estimated distribution of the condition of sidewalks in the Panama metropolitan area. Can customize the symbology and labeling of the map to make it more understandable and presentable. Additional analysis can be performed on the interpolated map, such as identifying areas with higher sidewalk maintenance needs or comparing the condition of sidewalks in different areas of the metropolitan area.

For the validation of the IDW method, we used Moran’s I (Chen, 2013) to see if the interpolation errors (the differences between the values predicted by the method and the actual values) follow any spatial pattern. If we find that these errors are spatially related according to Moran’s I, it tells us that the interpolation technique may not be capturing the spatial structure of the data well. Then, by analyzing Moran’s I, we can find areas where our prediction could be improved or where we need to adjust our interpolation technique. This process was performed on ArcGIS Pro, through the Spatial Autocorrelation (Global Moran’s I) tool. The result obtained was a Moran’s Index of 0.113178, with a p-value of 0.01 and a given z-score of 23.868347. According to the report made by the tool on ArcGIS Pro, there is a probability of less than 1% likelihood that this clustered pattern could be the result of random chance.

5. Results

The results of the areas were obtained from geoprocessing with the IDW tool according to the established sidewalk quality and connectivity index. The following categories of sidewalk conditions are based on the weighting established to the perception of the people surveyed.

As a result of the values obtained through the sidewalk evaluation index, Figure 4 shows a map segmented into zones based on sidewalk evaluation index scores. The different shades of orange represent the marked differences in assessment scores between the provinces of Panama and Panama Oeste. This visualization highlights disparities in sidewalk conditions across regions, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to improve pedestrian infrastructure.

Figure 4. Map of the sidewalk quality and connectivity in the metropolitan urban area of Panama.

Map showing the condition of sidewalks in the study area.

The numerical values obtained are organized as follows. The values by type of perceived sidewalk (A, B, C, D) are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Sidewalks by type.

Sidewalk type	Metropolitan urban area		Panama province		Panama West province
	Area (ha)	%	Area (ha)	%	Area (ha)	%
Type A	912.85	2.08	851.38	2.92	61.47	0.42
Type B	10609.31	24.17	8056.81	27.65	2552.50	17.30
Type C	20840.53	47.47	13617.08	46.73	7223.45	48.95
Type D	11534.68	26.28	6616.42	22.70	4918.26	33.33
Sum	43897.37	100.00	29141.69	100.00	14755.68	100.00

The general description of their conditions is.

• Sidewalk type A: This category includes sidewalks with a minimum width of 2.50 m or more and a greater distance from the edge of the roadway. In addition, these sidewalks are the ones that maintain better structural conditions for their use, as well as a more fluid and stable connection for the transit of various pedestrians, including those who use a device to support their mobility.

• Sidewalk type B: The sidewalks in this category were generally approximately 1.50 m wide, with acceptable structural integrity for traffic without major inconveniences; likewise, no obstructions that could hinder or impede the free movement of pedestrians were observed.

• Sidewalk type C: For this category, a non-delimited structure was perceived, in some cases presenting obstacles along its path, causing risky transit for pedestrians.

• Sidewalk type D: The sidewalks in this category were found to be in very poor structural condition, or in some cases even non-existent, due to the limited space available for pedestrian transit. There were also several obstacles, such as holes, fixed elements, and accumulated debris.

When analyzing the distribution of travel attraction sites, particularly educational and healthcare facilities, in relation to the condition of sidewalks, intriguing patterns emerge. Among educational facilities, it is notable that a significant proportion, approximately 21.38%, are located in areas characterized by Type D sidewalks, indicating potentially difficult pedestrian environments. Almost half of these centers, 48.28%, are located in areas classified as type C, suggesting a moderate level of sidewalk quality. Meanwhile, approximately 26.90% are located in areas classified as type B, representing better sidewalk conditions, while only 3.45% are located in areas classified as type A, indicating the highest level of sidewalk infrastructure. In contrast, the distribution of medical care centers presents a different scenario. In particular, no centers are located in areas classified as type A. There are a considerable portion, approximately 19.15%, of health care centers located in areas characterized by type D sidewalks, highlighting possible accessibility problems. The majority, 55.32%, are located in Type C areas, indicating a predominant trend towards moderate sidewalk conditions. In addition, about 25.53% of health care facilities are located in areas classified as type B, indicating relatively favorable sidewalk conditions, but not at the highest level. This analysis reinforces the importance of considering sidewalk infrastructure in urban planning, particularly with regard to accessibility and the location of vital community services such as educational and health care facilities.

Figures 5 and 6 show the condition of the sidewalks in the Metropolitan Urban Area of the province of Panama and the province of West Panama, according to their location shown in the map in Figure 4.

Figure 5. Sidewalk condition in the province of Panama. The first quadrant shows sidewalk type A, the second quadrant shows type B, the third quadrant shows type C, and the fourth quadrant shows type D.

Four pictures showing the types of conditions of the sidewalks in the province of Panama, from the most walkable to where they are non-existent.

Figure 6. Sidewalk condition in the province of West Panama. The first quadrant shows sidewalk type A, the second quadrant shows type B, the third quadrant shows type C, and the fourth quadrant shows type D.

Four pictures showing the types of conditions of the sidewalks in the province of West Panama, from the most walkable to where they are non-existent.

The metropolitan urban area of Panama has 2.08% of its area with type A sidewalks, which have a very good condition; these sidewalks have a width greater than 2.50 m, are separated from the road and their structural condition is very good. Also, these sidewalks have ideal characteristics for pedestrian mobility and safety because they are separated. An outstanding characteristic is that this type of sidewalks is located in residential areas of high purchasing power, planned and oriented to include within these areas the free recreation of its residents as part of its characteristics. In addition, these areas have commercial developments, so these sidewalks allow people to walk from their homes to these commercial areas.

The percentage of sidewalks type B in the study area was 24.17%, this type of sidewalks has an approximate width of 1.50 m, with an acceptable structural condition. These sidewalks allow good pedestrian mobility for people who do not have any type of reduced mobility. However, these sidewalks do not offer the ideal characteristics for people with reduced mobility to be able to walk them independently. These sidewalks were found in middle-class residential areas. These areas are, in general terms, real estate developments with a high degree of planning.

The 47.47% of the study area has sidewalks of type C, the sidewalks whose proximity to the road may present unsafe conditions for pedestrians, and in some sections, there are physical obstacles such as electrical poles, cars parked on top of the sidewalks, accumulation of garbage, and fire hydrants, which prevent them from functioning properly. In addition, some sections of the sidewalks are in a deteriorated condition. These sidewalks allow regular pedestrian mobility for people who do not have any type of reduced mobility, but in some sections of their routes, they have to use the road because the sidewalks are not properly connected, putting their lives at risk when walking on the streets. These sidewalks do not allow the transit of people with reduced mobility. The development of these sidewalks is insufficient because they are not properly connected to each other. In addition, in these areas, there are stretches where there are no sidewalks, so there is no continuity for pedestrian mobility. As for the areas where these types of sidewalks are found, it can be observed that they are neighborhoods with a high densification of houses.

Finally, for type D sidewalks, 26.28% of the study area was found to be in this range. In this range, we found areas that have no sidewalks, and those areas where there are sidewalks have many obstacles, such as garbage accumulation or vehicles that occupy pedestrian space; therefore, the main characteristic is that pedestrians must walk on the road sharing space with cars, making road safety in these areas critical. This condition occurs in areas with very little or no planning, including informal settlements. Another characteristic of these areas is that in the existing space, it is very difficult to build sidewalks, because in many of them, there is no road easement, and residences are located at the roadside.

6. Conclusions

Using the social perception of connectivity and quality of sidewalks (SPCQS) it has been possible to establish the social perception of connectivity and quality of sidewalks index as a method in the Metropolitan Urban Area of Panama. The index shows a deficiency in the development of pedestrian infrastructure, evidenced by the lack of sidewalks. It is important to note that this affects access to basic services and public transportation and implies that many citizens have to walk on the roads, which represents a high risk in terms of road safety.

If the values of the areas with type A and type B sidewalks are accumulated, it is observed that only 26.25% of the Metropolitan Urban Area of Panama has sidewalks that allow adequate pedestrian mobility for people who do not have reduced mobility (only 2.08% allow adequate pedestrian mobility for people with reduced mobility), compared to 73.75% of the metropolitan urban area of Panama that has unfavorable conditions for pedestrian mobility. People with reduced mobility cannot travel through the study area and this is a reality that needs to be improved and should be a priority for the country’s mobility planning. Fifty percent of the area has sidewalks that endanger the safety and integrity of people, which is a very serious problem. It is evident that our current sidewalks present significant risks to pedestrian safety. Investment in improving sidewalks and implementing pedestrian safety measures is essential to encourage the use of walking and reduce vehicular congestion in the metropolitan area.

There is a severe deficiency in integral urban planning that takes into account the needs of pedestrians, resulting in narrow sidewalks, obstacles, and a lack of ramps for people with disabilities. The urgency of a mobility plan is reflected in the need to reduce accidents and create safer environments The community needs a mobility plan that ensures that everyone, regardless of their abilities or disabilities, can move with comfort and dignity on the streets. Well-designed sidewalks not only improve mobility but also promote an active lifestyle by encouraging people to walk and bike. It can be summarized that the index developed for the study of connectivity and quality of sidewalks in the metropolitan area of Panama provides information on how the development of pedestrian infrastructure affects people in terms of connectivity. It has also generated sufficient evidence for decision makers to develop more effective strategies to address the problem of the inefficient condition of sidewalks in terms of connectivity and accessibility, which would also help to promote sustainable growth.

Software

All the data collected for this research was stored in a geodatabase and all the maps were produced using the software ArcGIS Pro ver. 3.1.2.

Geolocation information

The location of the data and maps used in this research are the province of Panama (9.1088° N, 78.9288° W) and the province of West Panama (8.7913° N, 80.0088° W).

Informed consent statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects of the study before participating in the survey. The research protocol was approved by the Comité de Bioética de la Universidad de Panamá.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

Additional information

Funding

Funding was provided by the Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENACYT) de la República de Panamá, Contrato por Merito No. 150-2021.