Unraveling high-school students’ learning experiences in English, Science, and Math: a mixed methods study

Abstract

For over a decade, the United Arab Emirates has used English as the medium of instruction in government schools. Previous research has concluded that the lack of English proficiency can make learning Science and Math difficult for students; however, research on students’ experiences and the challenges they face in this area is limited. Therefore, this study explores students’ views and the challenges that they face regarding learning English and Science and Math in English. The study employed a mixed methods approach using a survey with 236 students from 2 large school districts in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and qualitative data collected through interviews with 9 high-school students. The study found that students valued learning English, were aware of English teaching limitations in the current system, believed that the adopted exam-based system impeded English, Science, and Math learning, and preferred multimodal resources for learning. Many students encountered various challenges while studying including difficulties pertaining to the type of teaching they received and their proficiency in English language. This study calls for educational policymakers to consider students’ experiences learning English, Science, and Math when designing curricula and assessments.

Keywords:

• English language
• Science and Math teaching, bilingual students, high-school students, United Arab Emirates

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Serafina Pastore, Education, Psychology, Communication, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Italy

SUBJECTS:

• Bilingualism / ESL
• Curriculum Studies
• Secondary Education

Introduction

The perceptions that English as a Foreign/Second Language (EFL/ESL) students develop toward learning English and the level of difficulty the learning process entails can affect their learning experience, language learning development, and learning regarding different academic subjects. Many factors influence EFL/ESL learners’ perceptions of English, such as the learning context, pedagogical culture, nature of language input, learners’ needs, and learning styles (Khatib & Nourzadeh, 2011; Soy et al., 2023). Therefore, EFL/ESL teachers should pay attention not only to pedagogical aspects but also to learners’ contexts, attitudes toward the language, and learning opportunities and challenges (Akbari, 2015; Phakiti, 2006).

Previous research has addressed many issues related to teaching EFL/ESL and the experiences of teachers and students in these contexts. For instance, Khatib and Nourzadeh (2011) found that unplanned or irrelevant pedagogical activities, monotonous material, and a lack of connection between English and real-life situations made students perceive English as a dull language. Ikasari et al. (2019) also found that when routine, traditional, and monomodal texts were used, literacy and communication skills withered because learners did not practice the language in meaningful and interpretative ways using various modes, or use the language creatively in real-life communication settings (Khatib & Nourzadeh, 2011; Nasim & Mujeeba, 2024).

Standardized international exams have also greatly impacted the teaching and learning of English. In many countries that subscribe to the PIRLS, PISA, and TIMMS international exams and consider these exams as a means to assess the quality of their education system and students’ performance, teaching and learning tend to revolve around exam materials and test preparation, rather than learners’ authentic use of language skills and other abilities. This, in turn, might hinder the adoption of creative instructional methods and limit the development of suitable curricula that meet the learners’ needs (Akbari, 2015; Camphuijsen & Parcerisa, 2023).

In this regard, one important line of research focuses on the attitudes and motivations of EFL/ESL learners toward learning English, whether as a language or a medium of instruction (Al-Tamimi & Shuib, 2009). Motivation for learning is widely considered a key ingredient in the quality of second/foreign language learning (Musa, 2023). Motivation is also connected to learners’ attitudes, whether cognitive (their ideas and opinions about the language), affective (emotional attachment to the language), or behavioral (the actions they take when learning the language) (Musa, 2023). Research confirms that learners’ attitudes and motivations contribute to their learning dispositions and inclinations (Akbari, 2015; Brown, 2000; Moghadam et al., 2023; Qashoa, 2006). In the case of language learning, learners’ beliefs, attitudes, and dispositions toward the nature of learning English affect their acquisition of the language (Oxford, 2001). Therefore, learners may view English as a set of grammatical rules and list of vocabulary to be memorized, or as an integrated set of communicative skills. Consequently, they can either hate the subject or fall in love with the language.

For EFL/ESL learners, English is not confined to the realm of language learning, as it extends its impact to other subjects, especially when these subjects are taught in English. In this case, English becomes a mediator or bridge for learning other subjects, such as Science and Math (de Araujo et al., 2015; Hamilton, 2023). However, a language proficiency threshold is required if students are to excel in other subjects. This threshold is not static; it ascends as students move from one year to another, as Science and Math themselves increase in depth and difficulty. Therefore, students must progress in language learning to gain knowledge of Science and Math (Boero et al., 2008; Jourdain & Sharma, 2016; Richards & Pun, 2023; Schleppegrell, 2011; Shrestha, 2022). In other words, English mediates students’ learning in these subjects (Altieri, 2009; Franke et al., 2007; Jourdain & Sharma, 2016; Tai & Wei, 2023).

Arguably, learning Science and Math depends on the student’s ability to develop scientific and mathematical registers using English. In other words, learners should not only be competent and familiar with ordinary English registers but also able to build substantial linguistic and metalinguistic skills (Boero et al., 2008; Muhammadzhonovna, 2023; Nur et al., 2023; Richards & Pun, 2023; Schleppegrell, 2011; Shrestha, 2022). These skills are vital for learners to discursively interpret meanings in order to assimilate the advanced knowledge of Science and Math (Jourdain & Sharma, 2016; Mady & Garbati, 2014; Planas & Setati-Phakeng, 2014; Setati & Adler, 2001). Even native speakers of English may encounter challenges in understanding scientific and mathematical registers, depending on their levels and skills. This issue is augmented in the case of EFL/ESL learners because they need to master English language skills along with scientific and mathematical registers in English (Campbell et al., 2007; Lager, 2006; Mady & Garbati, 2014; Moschkovich, 2010; Schleppegrell, 2011). Hence, EFL/ESL learners may require more time to comprehend, process, and navigate scientific and mathematical concepts than native English speakers (Barwell, 2005; Clarkson, 2007; Gu et al., 2024; Latu, 2005; Meaney, 2006), as they require the use of a highly technical language, especially regarding mathematics, which is outside the realm of their ordinary English language registers (Brown et al., 2009; Moschkovich, 2010). This may impact their future performance in standardized tests and the development of Science and Math literacy in general (Hoffert & Cook, 2023; Neville-Barton & Barton, 2005; Xi & Yeping, 2008).

The above discussion indicates that English can be a barrier to learning Science and Math for EFL/ESL learners, and that their skills regarding language acquisition impact their ability to learn these subjects (Ibrahim & Alhosani, 2020; Pun et al., 2024). English words such as mean, operation, or element have different meanings when used in Science and Math, as they signify discrete concepts (Anthony & Walshaw, 2007; Clarkson, 2007; Kenney, 2005; Khatin‐Zadeh & Yazdani‐Fazlabadi, 2023). Although these are English words, they are also scientific and mathematical terms. Kotsopoulos (2007) clarifies that a mathematical language can seem like a foreign language; hence, it is important to teach EFL/ESL learners these mathematical words and expressions within a mathematical context that is completely different from the daily use of English as a communicative language (Rangecroft, 2002; Winsor, 2007). When EFL/ESL learners’ prior knowledge of the language makes them believe that an English word has only one specific meaning or when they are unable to go beyond the ordinary use of the word in everyday communication, it becomes difficult for them to develop Science and Math registers and grasp these subjects’ specific languages (Coetzer et al., 2023; Kaplan et al., 2009; Lesser & Winsor, 2009).

The study context and aim

This study was conducted in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), where Arabic and English are used officially in government transactions and are used everywhere as lingua francas. English is used by most schools as a medium of instruction to teach Science and Math. Due to the large community of Western expatriates living in the UAE, English is more commonly used than Arabic (Chepkemoi, 2017).

According to the UAE’s 2021 National Vision, the country seeks to develop a ‘first-rate education system’. Therefore, a thorough transformation of the educational system is taking place, which aims to increase students’ scores in reading, science, and math in international standardized exams such as the TIMSS and PISA (UAE Ministry of Cabinet Affairs, n.d.). Although student performances on these exams have recently improved, their scores are still below the OECD average of 500 in both tests (IEA TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, 2019; OECD, 2019). Recent results show that the Arabic students’ overall academic mean performance is (5.9), which indicates that, on average, students have a moderate level of English language proficiency (IELTS, 2022).

Notably, students’ beliefs about standardized testing affect their learning performance. According to Al Habbash et al. (2021), students believe that most standardized tests do not measure their actual English proficiency levels. Ibrahim and Alhosani also argue that ‘UAE student performances are problematic given the considerable resources invested in education as these have not yet translated into strong outcomes or indicated that the UAE has developed a first-rate education system’ (p.2). Furthermore, Ibrahim and Alhosani have found that despite training students to pass the TIMSS exams, the English language abilities of many students in government schools do not help them acquire knowledge and skills in Science and Math. As research on how English proficiency for EFL/ESL learners could impact their performance in Science and Math is quite rare in the Arab region, further investigation is necessary to unentangle this relationship and understand the reasons behind the unsatisfactory performance of UAE students in these subjects.

Therefore, this study aimed to understand high-school students’ views of their English, Science, and Math learning experiences in government schools in the UAE. To achieve this aim, the main objectives are as follows: 1) to explore students’ beliefs and experiences in learning English and Science and Math in English; and 2) to identify the challenges that high-school students face when learning English and Science and Math in English.

Research questions

The following research questions guided this study:

1. What beliefs do high-school students hold regarding English, Math, and Science learning in government schools in the UAE?

2. What challenges do high-school students encounter while learning English, Math, and Science in government schools in the UAE?

Theoretical framework

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (SCT)

Vygotsky (1978) has drawn attention to the many implications of how learning occurs generally and how language is specifically acquired. His SCT focuses on human development as constructed by sociocultural practices. For example, acquiring or learning a language or any other content area occurs through learners’ participation in different dialogues and discussions, where their cognitive abilities are awakened, and they are able to use language in different communicative and learning situations. Cognitive abilities are triggered on the inter-psychological or social plane through exposure to the external environment, where cognition and language development are fashioned. These developments move from the inter-psychological plane to the intra-psychological one, based on the assumption that what originates in the social sphere will ultimately be represented intra-psychologically within the individual’s mind through the process of internalization (Shehadeh & Coombe, 2010; Vygotsky, 1978).

Vygotsky’s (1978) research on the sociocultural context reveals that our sociocultural environment has a myriad of mediating tools that play a significant role in the learning process. During mediation, humans do not interact directly with their physical environment. They depend on symbolic tools (e.g. signs, resources, instructions, and activities) that serve to visualize the targeted language aspects or content areas in the psychological plane, thereby allowing for an understanding of the context surrounding them. According to the SCT, humans’ social and mental abilities are shaped through interactions with culturally constructed tools or artifacts (Lantolf, 2000). Vygotsky (1978) asserts that ‘learning as a profoundly social process emphasizes dialogue and the varied roles that language plays in instruction and mediated cognitive growth’ (p. 131).

Regarding the use of a second language (L2) in learning about other content areas such as Science and Math, the notion of mediation indicates the role of language as a mediator. Language is a tool that plays a mediating role between L2 learners’ minds (intra-psychological) and what they are being exposed to from the outside world (inter-psychological). In addition to language, the role of teachers, peers, and the nature of activities, tasks, and materials are all considered tangible and profound mediators in L2 learning (Lantolf, 2000). Accordingly, L2 learning is not seen as a secluded act of cognition; instead, it is an interaction process via mediation (Alsaadi & Mahdi, 2013; Mason, 2000; Turuk, 2008).

Van lier’s notion of affordance in language education

The concept of affordance refers to the relationship between an environment and an agent in a given situation within an interactive system. Affordances, as properties of the environment-human interaction, provide opportunities for potential actions, which arise from the interaction between both parties (Chemero, 2003; Şahin et al., 2007; Stoffregen, 2003). Expanding on Vygotsky (1978), van Lier (2004) advocates for a comprehensive approach to language learning. He emphasized learners’ active roles in identifying the relevant aspects of the environment, which enables them to engage in further activities. Moreover, van Lier identifies several key notions—possibility, immediacy, relations, interaction, and opportunity—that make affordances available to learners.

The affordance theory can provide a useful framework for understanding English as a medium of instruction by focusing on the opportunities for interaction in a learning environment (Henry, 2016; Jiang & Zhang, 2019; Kordt, 2018; van Lier, 2004; Zhang et al., 2023). In L2 learning, learners’ actions can help them take advantage of these opportunities and facilitate actual learning (Jiang & Zhang, 2019; van Lier, 2004, 2008). However, environmental constraints (e.g. teaching materials, activities, and pedagogies) may impede L2 learners from fully utilizing these opportunities (Bower & Sturman, 2015; Henry, 2016; van Lier, 2004). Therefore, the affordance theory can serve as a useful framework for examining how L2 learners leverage social opportunities in their environment to perform specific actions (Aronin & Singleton, 2012; Jeon et al., 2023; Kordt, 2018; van Lier, 2004).

The idea that environments shape learners’ language and learning practices has significantly impacted our understanding of language and knowledge acquisition. According to van Lier (2000), learners are surrounded by implicit meanings that become apparent as they engage with their environment. Learners need to interpret and respond to their surroundings in an ongoing feedback loop to grasp their significance (van Lier, 2004). Learners develop meaning as they react to the challenges and opportunities presented by their environment and adjust to changing circumstances. According to Jiang and Zhang (2019), learners need to be motivated and take charge of their learning by recognizing the opportunities and challenges available in their environment. Learners should actively participate in language and other content-related activities that promote student-centered learning and ‘output affordances’ (Jiang & Zhang, 2019, p.333). To engage learners in interactions, a variety of student-centered learning activities can be conducted both inside and outside the classroom (Jiang & Zhang, 2019; Kim et al., 2022; Reynolds & Yu, 2018; Sørensen et al., 2023; Sung, 2018, 2020).

Building on the two abovementioned theories, we can enhance our understanding of the learning atmosphere of high-school students in the UAE. These theories highlight the interconnectivity, mediation, affordance, and availability of English, Science, and Math learning experiences within a given learning environment. Additionally, they can help us understand the challenges students face while acquiring ESL, as well as the challenges they face when learning Science and Math in English.

Methodology

Research design

This study utilized a mixed methods design that combined qualitative and quantitative approaches. The use of an exploratory sequential design aimed to identify high-school students’ beliefs and learning experiences regarding English, Math, and Science and the challenges they faced while learning these subjects in the UAE. The study began with a semi-structured interview to collect data for the qualitative phase; after exploring the topic, different domains and variables were identified, which served as the basis for developing a quantitative instrument (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). A self-reported questionnaire was used to collect data during the quantitative phase.

The participants

Participants were selected in two consecutive phases. In the qualitative phase, the participants were selected purposively and conveniently based on specific criteria (Bryman, 2012). The participants in this phase were male or female high-school students of different grades (9, 10, 11, and 12). This purposive sample included Emirati and Arab students studying in government schools in the UAE during the 2021–2022 academic year. Nine students participated in the qualitative phase (Table 1).

Table 1. Demographic information of the participants in the qualitative phase.

Pseudonyms	Grade level	Gender	Nationality
Meera	12	Female	Emirati
Ahmad	11	Male	Sudanese
Mohamad	12	Male	Emirati
Ali	9	Female	Emirati
Alia	12	Female	Syrian
Maha	10	Female	Emirati
Amna	11	Female	Jordanian
Mona	10	Female	Egyptian
Fatima	9	Female	Emirati

In the quantitative phase, a random sampling technique was employed, wherein an equal chance of participation was provided to high-school students in the target population. Based on their willingness and availability to respond to the self-questionnaire, most participants were from grade 12, and the lowest number was from grade 10, as shown in Table 2. The students were from government schools in the Abu Dhabi and Al-Ain school districts. The sample size of this study was (n = 236).

Table 2. Demographic information of the participants in the quantitative phase.

Category	Sub-category	Frequency	Percentage
Age	14	28	11.9
	15	16	6.8
	16	60	25.4
	17	96	40.7
	Older than 17	36	15.3
Nationality	Emirati	222	94.1
	Arab	14	5.9
Gender	Male	70	29.7
	Female	166	70.3
	Nine	46	19.5
Grade	Ten	04	1.7
	Eleven	82	34.7
	Twelve	104	44.1

Instrumentation

The researchers sequentially used a combination of qualitative and quantitative instruments. The first step involved conducting semi-structured interviews to gain insights into each participant’s unique perspectives and experiences regarding learning English, Science, and Math, and the challenges they encountered. The interview questions were developed based on the available literature. In the second phase, a self-report questionnaire was designed based on the findings of the qualitative phase and the literature. The purpose was to evaluate the experiences of high-school students while learning English, Science, and Math, as well as their beliefs concerning the challenges they faced (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Methodological framework.

Data analysis

The data analysis in this study was conducted in two phases. To analyze the qualitative data, the researchers used Kvale’s (2007) analysis framework and employed thematic analysis to understand the views that participants expressed in the semi-structured interviews. The thematic analysis process involved extracting meaningful insights from interviewees’ responses through two primary analytical approaches: ‘meaning coding’ and ‘meaning condensation’ (Kvale, 2007, p.105). The ‘meaning coding’ approach involves decoding, coding, and categorizing important terms and recurring expressions communicated by the interviewees. Next, the ‘meaning condensation’ approach is used to re-code, re-contextualize, and compress significant terminologies and recurring expressions into meaningful themes, which is known as data reduction (Kvale, 2007). Once the key themes were identified, the researchers verified that the knowledge obtained from the interviewees’ responses was valid, reliable, and objective. Verification was conducted by elaborating on the interviewees’ responses during the interviews to clarify the underlying meaning of their answers (Kvale, 2007).

To analyze the data gathered from participants’ questionnaire responses, a descriptive statistics analysis was conducted using SPSS 27^th version. This involved tabulating means and standard deviations to compare the domains/categories in the questionnaire and determining which domains/categories were more significantly approved by students as personal beliefs and the challenges they faced while learning English, Math, and Science in English.

Validity and reliability

This study involved two phases to establish its validity and reliability. In the qualitative phase, a panel of three research experts reviewed and revised the interview questions to ensure content validity. The questions were also developed based on ideas drawn from the existing literature to establish construct validity. To increase the reliability of data obtained from the interviews, Kvale’s (2007) analysis framework, in which a verification process was used to clarify the responses and ensure ‘objectivity’ in data collection, was adopted. To maintain impartiality in data analysis, two raters transcribed and evaluated the interviews, and their independent evaluations were communicated to the researchers. Commonalities among the interviewees’ responses were considered when categorizing ideas into themes.

In the quantitative phase, content validity was checked by using Lawshe’s Content Validity Ratio (CVR), in which three raters revised and evaluated the questionnaire items using the scale of ‘not necessary = 1, useful but not essential = 2 and essential = 3’ (Taherdoost, 2016, p. 30). According to Ayre and Scally (2014), ‘CVR values range between −1 (perfect disagreement) and +1 (perfect agreement)’ (p.79). The CVR value was calculated using EXCEL, and the final value was (0.886), which demonstrated a high agreement level among the three raters. In terms of questionnaire reliability, internal consistency was checked by calculating Cronbach’s alpha using SPSS. We checked internal consistency based on the following statement: ‘The closer Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is to 1.0, the greater the internal consistency of the items in the scale’ (Gliem & Gliem, 2003, p. 87). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was (0.934), demonstrating high internal consistency among the questionnaire items.

Results

Qualitative findings

The first research question focused on high-school students’ beliefs about their learning encounters with English, Science, and Math. Based on the interview data analysis, four themes showcased the students’ learning experiences and beliefs.

Theme #1: ESL learners recognize the value of learning English, are aware of how it should be taught, and are aware of system limitations

The interview participants believed that English was a significant tool for academic and career success. Learning English and using it in other subjects motivated them. For instance, Meera expressed the need to study all subjects in English. She believed, ‘It is necessary to develop English language skills to prepare for future jobs’. Most participants preferred to learn ‘real-life English’ that could help them in practical situations, Alia stated. They also believed in practicing ‘real-life English’ through conversations with friends and families from diverse cultures.

English classes were a source of enjoyment for most students as they worked toward fluency. Mohamad expressed his eagerness to learn and practice more English in his free time, acknowledging the ‘language’s global importance’. However, Amna’s experience differed. She previously spoke English as a native language and faced rejection from some teachers and students. Consequently, she spoke more Arabic and lost the opportunity to practice English. Despite this, she recognizes the importance of using English in Science and Math, as scientific and mathematical terms in Arabic are difficult to understand. She believes that scientific and mathematical English is smoother and more accurate than its Arabic counterpart.

The lecturing style used in the schools we visited, coupled with the students’ passive roles, left them feeling disinterested in learning English, Science, and Math. The students interviewed felt the need for a connection between these subjects and their real-life experiences. Meera expressed this need by stating, ‘It is all about information, information, information… I believe it should be different’. Students were also aware that the curriculum was heavy and time was limited. These constraints have a detrimental impact on teaching the three subjects. Amna reported that because of the abundance of topics to cover, teachers were unable to provide interactive learning experiences, resulting in students feeling overwhelmed and bored. She added, ‘One teacher who previously provided lively classes in Grade 10, now in Grade 12, is struggling to cover all the necessary topics, leaving little room for engaging activities’. These constraints left the students feeling unfulfilled and dissatisfied with their classes.

Theme #2: Adherence to exam-based teaching impedes language, Science, and Math learning

In the UAE, exams and grades are important for schools, students, teachers, and parents. Exams drive the government school business in the country. The students we interviewed had to cope with an exam-based teaching system, even if it ran against their wishes and desires. Some students, such as Fatima, engaged in uninteresting activities to avoid losing their marks. Before examinations, teachers often prioritize providing students with sample questions and key tips for answering them. Meera reported, ‘Teachers give us revision materials and practice papers before exams. It is all about the exams and they tell us what we need to do in them’. One potential reason for students performing poorly on standardized tests such as the PISA and TIMSS, which measure mathematical and scientific abilities in real-life situations and are built on students’ accumulated knowledge, could be the gulf between how the three subjects are taught independently and how the system judges language skills and scientific and mathematical knowledge based solely on exam scores.

Students shared the idea that not all teachers fall under the same category of adhering to an exam-based teaching style, as some strive to enhance their students’ English, Science, and Math skills along with preparing them to excel in exams. As Amna mentioned, ‘I cannot make a generalization, as some teachers prioritize both learning and passing exams while others focus solely on exam preparation’. Moreover, students often feel that exams are unjust, as they cover only a few skills, despite them having studied various skills throughout their academic year. ‘We learn different skills in the English language throughout the term, but during assessments, only one skill or two are chosen by the exam writers’, Amna opined.

Theme #3: ESL students prefer multimodal modes of learning and seek out online resources

During the interview, the students emphasized the significance of utilizing various modes of learning, such as online courses, websites, audio, videos, stories, pictures, documentaries, and social media, to learn English and apply it to subjects such as Science and Math. Alia stated, ‘Listening to conversations in English is crucial for improving speaking skills’. She suggested listening to YouTubers and applying similar techniques to enhance one’s own speaking abilities. Most of the participants opted to watch YouTube or movies to enhance their speaking abilities. For example, Mona listened to English programs, music, and podcasts, attended online lectures in English, and assessed her comprehension. Most students employed multimodal approaches to surmount any challenges they encountered while learning English, Math, or Science. As Maha stated, ‘Utilizing different resources helps me expand my vocabulary and improve my proficiency in English. If my teacher’s explanation in Math or Science is not enough, I look for alternative explanations on YouTube to ensure that I grasp the concept’. Participants relied on multimodal resources to facilitate their learning and preferred visual and audio aids over traditional book reading. For example, Mohamad stated, ‘accessing information has become much easier and less time-consuming thanks to the abundance of online resources’.

Theme #4: the reciprocal use of both languages serves in processing information

Based on the participants’ responses, students use both Arabic and English reciprocally and interchangeably when processing information. For instance, when critically analyzing their thoughts, especially in Science and Math, they tended to use Arabic rather than English. However, when articulating their thoughts, they switch to English. Meera, for example, ‘use[s] Arabic when analyzing equations or any idea in [her] mind since it is [her] first language, and [her] brain naturally thinks in Arabic’. However, most students in the interviews required more time to process and communicate their ideas effectively. They chose the language depending on the situation, audience, and topic at hand to convey their thoughts more meaningfully. Consequently, they often felt anxious and hesitant when communicating their ideas with teachers and classmates or during assessments.

The second research question investigated the challenges high-school students face in learning English, Science, and Math in government schools in the UAE. Two themes emerged from interview data regarding these challenges.

Theme #5: English language learning presents a variety of challenges for ESL students

L2 learning can be challenging for many. It takes time and effort, and learners may encounter various obstacles along the way. These obstacles can be attributed to factors such as the learner’s abilities, learning style, prior knowledge, and proficiency level. Some students may excel in one area of the language while struggling in another. For instance, some may need to listen to a recording multiple times before they can understand and answer the ensuing questions related to listening comprehension. Alia stated that, ‘I find listening difficult because I cannot grasp it quickly. So, I need to listen to it a few times before I can comprehend what it says. Usually, it takes me two or three times to find the answers I need’. Many students have expressed that their limited vocabulary, influenced by cultural differences, often causes difficulties when listening to native speakers, who use words with various connotations rooted in the sociocultural implications of the language. This makes it challenging for them to comprehend listening tests; Fatima said, ‘I struggle with understanding quickly. Especially in listening tests, I find it hard to locate answers because of the complex vocabulary used, which often has multiple meanings’.

Additionally, learning English grammar is a complex process. Students may struggle with grammatical rules and make mistakes while speaking or writing. ESL students may experience difficulty recognizing various elements of English grammar and remembering and applying grammatical rules. As Maha puts it, ‘I often struggle with grammar, such as identifying parts of speech. It takes me a long time to determine if a word is an adjective or adverb’. Students should have a solid foundation in the basics of grammar; otherwise, they are likely to make mistakes similar to Mohamad, who admits that ‘grammar is his biggest weakness due to a lack of understanding since childhood. Grammar is like a building, and without the proper foundational blocks, it is challenging to construct a sound structure’.

Many students also lacked confidence. Alia, for example, explains that she ‘often feel[s] unsure of herself and struggle[s] to express herself correctly, particularly when speaking’. This can lead to moments when her mind goes blank, and she loses track of her thoughts during a conversation. Unfortunately, this lack of confidence also affects how students communicate with their teachers. As Mohamad notes, ‘Speaking with a teacher can be incredibly stressful, even if [he] can manage to get his message out’. Students may sometimes even avoid speaking altogether, as was the case with Amna, who said she ‘feels nervous and scared to make mistakes, as [her] classmates can mock [her]’. To overcome these challenges, students require a safe and supportive environment in which they can practice speaking freely and frequently. As Mona points out, ‘learning a language can be a slow process, and students need plenty of opportunities to practice and reinforce their understanding’.

Participants mentioned that one factor that could either facilitate or hinder their writing skills was their interest in the topics presented to them. Teachers can help by selecting topics that align with the students’ interests or by offering a range of options for them to choose from. As Ali noted, ‘Writing can be a challenging task, but it largely depends on the topic’. If given more freedom, they can write relatively well; however, if the topic is too restrictive, their writing will suffer. This sentiment was echoed by other students, who struggled with time management and comprehension when faced with unfamiliar and unappealing topics. For instance, Fatima shares that ‘writing tasks can be limiting and constraining’, particularly when she lacks familiarity or enthusiasm for the subject at hand.

Finally, some of the students in our interviews struggled with reading comprehension. Although they may be able to read at a fast pace, they often have difficulty understanding the main idea and picking up important details. As Mona pointed out, ‘It is important to read the entire passage and focus on the main points rather than just trying to read quickly’. Additionally, some teachers have high expectations of their students, which can be overwhelming. Ahmed shared, ‘These expectations could feel like a burden, especially when students already have a lot on their plate’. Therefore, many students often experience feelings of being overwhelmed and find it challenging to keep up.

Theme # 6: Learning Science and Math in English is more challenging for ESL learners

Learning Science and Math in English presents various challenges for students. A significant problem arises when teachers use Arabic during instruction but the exams are written in English. Meera, for instance, points out that her ‘Arab Science and Math teachers explain certain concepts in Arabic, even though the curriculum is in English. Unfortunately, this can make it difficult for students to answer exam questions in English’. Teachers may use both languages in instruction to help slow-paced students, without recognizing the negative impact it can have during exams.

Another challenge for students is communicating their ideas and thoughts about Science and Math in English to their teachers. This can lead to misunderstandings, particularly when addressing complex concepts. In some cases, students prefer to seek assistance from their peers, as their support can help bridge gaps in communication with their teachers. Ahmed exemplified this sentiment when he shared, ‘I feel anxious when speaking with my Math teacher because he does not understand what I say. I find it easier to approach my friends when I have difficulty understanding certain concepts’. One related challenge faced by the interviewed students was the high expectations of teachers, which did not match their actual learning levels, thereby complicating their learning experience. Ali mentioned, ‘Sometimes, the teachers’ high expectations feel burdensome, and some students cannot handle it. I, too, feel overwhelmed at times’.

Students acknowledged the importance of being proficient in English to excel in Science and Math; otherwise, language became a barrier to learning, especially during assessments. Amna explained, ‘We are not proficient enough in English, so how can we deal with the language used in Math and Science exams? We face difficulty in comprehending questions due to a lack of vocabulary. Sometimes, exams are translated literally, causing confusion and changing the meaning’. Additionally, the students shared that they might need more preparation to continue their Science and Math education fluidly. They believed that knowledge of these subjects using English needs to be accumulative and that they had encountered many deficiencies in the process of accumulation. As Maha expressed, ‘I feel that I gained nothing during my preparatory school because I was not guided correctly from the beginning’.

Quantitative results

The quantitative analysis aimed to answer two research questions and confirm the results obtained in the qualitative phase of the study. According to the data presented in Table 3 and Figure 2, the results revealed that students’ beliefs regarding their Science and Math learning were reported as higher (M = 3.78; SD = 0.45) than their beliefs in their English language learning (M = 3.55; SD = 0.52) (see Appendix A). Challenges in learning Science and Math using English were also rated higher (M = 3.76; SD = 0.60) than those in English language learning (M = 3.52; SD = 0.86) (see Appendix B).

Figure 2. Students’ beliefs & challenges in English, Mathematics & Science learning.

Table 3. Students’ beliefs about English, Math & Science learning and challenges faced.

Category	M	SD
Students’ beliefs in Science and Math learning	3.78	.45
Students’ beliefs in English Language learning	3.55	.52
Challenges in learning Science and Math using English	3.76	.60
Challenges in English Language learning	3.52	.86

In terms of English language learning, the results in Table 4 demonstrate that high-school students’ beliefs about their English teaching are higher than (M = 3.67; SD = 0.60) those in their English learning (M = 3.42; SD = 0.58). This could be attributed to the nature of the challenges they experienced in English language instruction (M = 3.55; SD = 0.83), which was rated higher than the language skill-based challenges (M = 3.50; SD = 0.95).

Table 4. Students’ beliefs & challenges in English Language learning.

Category	M	SD
English learning-based belief	3.42	.58
English teaching-based belief	3.67	.60
Language skill-based challenges	3.50	.95
Instruction-based challenges	3.55	.83

In terms of learning Science and Math using English, the results in Table 5 show that high-school students’ beliefs about their Science and Math teaching are reported to be higher than (M = 3.88; SD = 0.57) those about their Science and Math learning (M = 3.68; SD = 0.53). This could be attributed to the nature of the challenges they experienced related to their skills in using English to learn Science and Math (M = 3.81; SD = 0.63), which was rated higher than the challenges encountered in instruction-based challenges (M = 3.71; SD = 0.64).

Table 5. Students’ beliefs & challenges in learning Science & Math in English.

Category	M	SD
Science & Math learning-based belief	3.68	.53
Science & Math teaching-based belief	3.88	.57
Language skill-based challenges	3.81	.63
Instruction-based challenges	3.71	.64

Table 6 presents some of the statements that illustrate students’ beliefs about learning English, Science, and Math and some of the challenges they faced. Appendices A and B contain additional information.

Table 6. Students’ beliefs and challenges – selected items.

Category	Item	M	SD
English language beliefs	I believe that learning English is very important for college and work life	4.58	.98
	I become distracted in English classes because English is boring	2.13	1.29
Science & Math beliefs	I believe that my achievement in Science and Math could be better if I was taught in Arabic	2.87	1.53
	I believe that teachers should clarify the concepts of Science and Math in English instead of mixing English and Arabic	4.03	.82
	I believe that teachers’ high expectations don’t match our actual levels in Science and Math	3.69	1.24
English language instruction challenges	What is taught in my English class is different from what is assessed	3.89	.80
	Communication with my teachers gives me feelings of stress and tension	3.26	1.48
English language student skills-based challenges	I get many ‘brain freeze’ moments while speaking	3.71	1.18
	I have difficulty using advanced vocabulary to have good writing	3.62	1.26
Science & Math learning student skills-based challenges	I find difficulty in understanding concepts in Science and Math using English language	3.88	.84
	Having a slow English reading pace affects my understanding and performance in Science and Math exams	3.60	1.08
Science & Math learning instruction challenges	The level of English used in the exams is higher than the level of English used to teach us Science and Math	3.85	.84
	English, we use to learn Science and Math in class is different from English used in their exams	3.55	1.14

The results indicated that the students had a positive attitude toward learning English and considered it an important subject both academically and professionally. In alignment with the qualitative findings, they believed that teachers should not use a mixture of English and Arabic to explain concepts, as this was not helpful for the majority of them. In addition, some of the more pronounced English learning challenges were, for example, the dissonance between class lessons and what was being assessed, and communication with teachers, which was difficult for many students because they lacked an advanced vocabulary and became disoriented when speaking. Finally, the challenges related to teaching and learning Science and Math in English included the slow reading pace of many students, which affected their comprehension and performance, and the level of English used in exams being higher than the level used in classes.

Discussion

This study aimed to gain a thorough understanding of high-school students’ views regarding their learning experiences in English, Science, and Math. This was achieved by examining their beliefs and identifying the challenges they faced while learning about subjects. The qualitative and quantitative results revealed some consistencies. For example, participants expressed positive attitudes toward English learning in the interviews and questionnaires. They recognized English as a crucial tool for academic and professional achievement. The use of English in other subjects, such as Science and Math, motivated them. Moreover, participants believed that practicing English in real-life situations was necessary to make English classes enjoyable. According to Khatib and Nourzadeh (2011), Ikasari et al. (2019), Musa (2023), and Soy et al. (2023), students tend to view learning English as boring when presented with unplanned or irrelevant pedagogical activities, disengaging material, and no connection between learning English and real-life situations. Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes the importance of learning as a social process in which language plays a vital role in cognitive growth and instruction. To engage learners in interactive activities, they should be provided with a variety of student-centered and authentic learning activities, both inside and outside the classroom. Thus, English can motivate students to learn about other content areas (Jiang & Zhang, 2019; Kim et al., 2022; Reynolds & Yu, 2018; Sørensen et al., 2023; Sung, 2018; 2020).

The interview results provide a possible explanation for why some students struggle to perform well on standardized tests such as IELTS (which evaluates English proficiency) and PISA and TIMSS (which measure mathematical and scientific skills). These tests rely solely on exam scores to assess students’ knowledge; however, the way the subjects were taught in isolation may not align with how they were tested. In the interviews and questionnaires, students confirmed that a dissonance existed between class lessons and evaluations. According to several studies, including Akbari (2015), Al Habbash et al. (2021), Ibrahim and Alhosani, and Morganan and Ibrahim (2019), international exams, such as the PIRLS, PISA, and TIMSS, are commonly used to evaluate the quality of a country’s education system and its students’ performance. These exams focus on the learning material and accumulation of knowledge, rather than authentic language skills and other important abilities. When the focus is on test preparation, this approach can hinder the adoption of creative teaching methods and limit the development of appropriate curricula that cater to learners’ diverse needs.

During the interviews and questionnaires, the students highlighted the significance of using diverse multimodal modes to enhance their learning methods. They emphasized the usefulness of such modes in learning English, Science, and Math. Ikasari et al. (2019) demonstrated that incorporating various multimodal texts into English or other subject lessons could improve literacy and engage learners in practicing English in a meaningful way. This supports the concept of affordances, where the properties of the environment-human interaction provide opportunities for potential action resulting from the interaction between both parties (Chemero, 2003; Sahin et al., 2017; Stoffregen, 2003; Zhang et al., 2023).

Throughout the process of learning English, students faced several challenges that were highlighted in both the interviews and the questionnaire. One of the most commonly experienced difficulties is listening comprehension, which requires multiple replays to understand and answer the questions. Additionally, cultural differences often limit the students’ vocabulary, making it challenging to comprehend native speakers when they speak or when students read texts. Learning English grammar can also be complicated, leading to both verbal and written mistakes. Moreover, some students lacked confidence, while others struggled with reading comprehension. These findings were consistent with Mak’s (2021) and Purwati et al. (2023) studies, which identified common challenges encountered by learners while expressing their ideas. These challenges include struggling to speak fluently or convey intended meanings due to limited vocabulary, and issues with grammar, coherence, and pronunciation. Nasim and Mujeeba (2024) and Qashoa (2006) also asserted that inadequate vocabulary, grammar, and spelling were among the most discouraging factors for language learners.

In addition, teaching Science and Math in English presents several challenges, including a vast curriculum and limited time for instruction and assessment. Consequently, interactive learning experiences were difficult to provide, leaving students overwhelmed and uninterested. Unfortunately, some teachers continued to rely on exams and had high expectations regardless of student preferences, leading to added pressure on the students. Benner and Mistry (2007), Heaverlo (2011), and Şahin et al. (2007) conclude that teachers’ expectations can affect students’ academic performance and motivation both positively and negatively. Moreover, environmental factors such as teaching materials, activities, curricula, and pedagogies may hinder L2 learners from fully utilizing the opportunities available to them. Ibrahim and Alhosani, Bouhlila (2011), Huang et al. (2016), and Pun et al. (2024) emphasized the importance of aligning the curriculum and assessment to students’ needs when using English as a medium of instruction in Science and Math. Designing a curriculum that cumulatively fosters the practical application of knowledge is crucial.

Based on the qualitative and quantitative results, the students believed that proficiencies in English, Science, and Math were connected. However, they also recognized some deficiencies in these areas. It has been argued that students need to develop mathematical and scientific registers using English to learn Science and Math. This means that learners should not only be competent and familiar with ordinary English registers, but also have strong linguistic and metalinguistic skills (Nur et al., 2023; Richards & Pun, 2023; Schleppegrell, 2011; Shrestha, 2022). This is especially important for EFL/ESL learners because they need to master English language skills along with scientific and mathematical registers in English (Campbell et al., 2007; Lager, 2006; Mady & Garbati, 2014; Moschkovich, 2010; Schleppegrell, 2011).

Many students used Arabic and English interchangeably when processing information, but the interviews revealed that they often struggled to communicate their ideas effectively and required more time to do so. This was confirmed by their responses to the questionnaire, where they indicated that they spent more time understanding scientific and mathematical language and content and found it difficult to convey their ideas in English due to a lack of confidence. Therefore, the impact of the English language is not limited to language learning, but has a crucial influence on other subjects taught in English as well, since it serves as a mediator for learning Science and Math (de Araujo et al., 2015; Tai & Wei, 2023). Students require a certain level of language proficiency to excel in these subjects. This proficiency threshold is not fixed, as it increases with the complexity levels of Science and Math. The complexity levels of Science and Math increase as students progress from one year to the next (Boero et al., 2008; Jourdain & Sharma, 2016; Richards & Pun, 2023; Schleppegrell, 2011; Shrestha, 2022). Therefore, students must progress competently in language acquisition to acquire knowledge in Science and Math. If this does not happen, Ibrahim and Alhosani argue that EFL/ESL learners may find English a barrier to learning Science and Math.

Despite the need to use both languages in learning Science and Math, the questionnaire showed that students disagreed with the notion that their achievements in these subjects would be better if they were taught in Arabic. This was the only difference between the qualitative and quantitative results, supported by the widespread use of English in the UAE. This finding contradicts the results of Ahmad et al. (2013) in Malaysia and Haryanto (2012) in Indonesia, who argued that learners preferred to use their mother tongues (i.e. Malay and Bahasa Indonesia, respectively), rather than English, when studying Science and Math. This discrepancy requires further investigation.

Conclusion and recommendations

Bilingual students in the UAE recognize the significance of English proficiency for their academic and future career success. However, they believe that the current teaching methods and resources have limitations despite English being the medium of instruction. The exam-based system is seen as a barrier to effective learning in subjects like English, Science, and Math, indicating the need for reforms in assessment strategies. Bilingual students prefer interactive and diverse learning resources. Education policymakers should update the teaching methods to cater to the diverse learning needs of students by incorporating interactive and multimodal resources. It is crucial to integrate language learning with the teaching of Science and Math subjects. This can be achieved by providing language support within these subjects and creating language-rich classroom environments. Policymakers should consider shifting from exam-based assessments to more comprehensive approaches that evaluate students’ language proficiency and their understanding of subject content. It is essential to provide bilingual teachers with training and support to effectively teach in English-medium classrooms, which includes strategies to address language challenges and build student confidence. Efforts should be made to reduce the pressure on students caused by teachers’ high expectations. Additional support resources should be provided, and a supportive learning environment should be fostered.

A key recommendation of this study for educational policymakers in the UAE is to align the curriculum and assessments to better suit the needs and learning styles of bilingual students. Moreover, the experiences of students in learning English, Science, and Math and the challenges that they face, such as those presented in this study, should be considered when designing curricula and teaching methods to enhance their knowledge and skills. Teaching bilingual students requires the development of a tailored curriculum, multimodal resources, and bilingual pedagogies within a safe environment, where they can communicate their ideas and thoughts without feeling worried or insecure. Finally, as international standardized tests are designed based on the learning expectations of native speakers of English and do not consider the needs of bilingual learners in different countries, more empirical studies are needed to redesign such tests to accurately measure the proficiency levels of bilingual learners.

Data availability statement

There is no data set associated with this paper.

Disclosure statement

The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.

Additional information

Funding

This work was not supported by any funding agency.

Notes on contributors

Muna Binothman

Muna Binothman is a dedicated educator and school-based administrator who has interest in educational research. She is passionate about studying education thoroughly and sharing valuable insights to improve the field.

Maha Alhabbash

Maha Alhabbash has extensive academic research in areas such as trans-identity and translanguaging, discourse analysis, authentic learning, issues faced by EFL/ESL learners, language assessment, emergent literacy, visual literacy, multimodality, and bilingual or multilingual education.

Najah Al Mohammedi

Najah Al Mohammedi’s research interests include multimodality, visual literacy, emergent literacy, language teaching and learning, bilingualism, and language assessment.

Ali Ibrahim

Ali Ibrahim is a Professor of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at the United Arab Emirates University. His research interests include educational leadership, school environment, education reform, teachers and students.

Appendix A:

Students’ beliefs

Students’ beliefs about English learning

English learning-based beliefs

 

Table

	Item	M	SD
BE1	I believe that learning English is very important for college and work life.	4.58	.98
BE2	I enjoy attending English classes.	4.08	1.26
BE4	I believe developing my English needs more time, effort, and practice.	3.63	1.42
BE17	I practice English in my daily life more than in the classroom.	3.25	1.25
BE8	I feel I am improving at a very slow rate in English classes.	2.84	1.39
BE3	I become distracted in English classes because English is boring.	2.13	1.29

English teaching-based beliefs

 

Table

	Item	M	SD
BE16	I believe that using multimodal sources (e.g. videos; pictures, movies, audios, books) helps me learn English better.	4.27	1.12
BE5	I feel it is important to use what I learned in English to interact with others.	4.25	1.06
BE15	I believe that English language should be taught through real-life situations.	3.95	1.16
BE18	I believe that classroom interaction, discussion, and group work serve in enriching my English skills.	3.92	1.16
BE10	I believe they should select topics to practice English skills based on students’ interests and levels.	3.89	1.15
BE14	I believe peer learning is important as my friends help me with problematic issues in English.	3.60	1.38
BE13	I believe that English language skills should be assessed together instead of assessing each skill separately.	3.49	1.26
BE7	I believe that my grades in English reflect my real level and skills.	3.43	1.32
BE19	I believe they teach us English to pass exams only.	3.10	1.43
BE11	I believe that teachers’ high expectations don’t match our actual levels in English language.	2.83	1.31

Students’ beliefs in science & Math learning

Science & math learning-based beliefs

 

Table

	Item	M	SD
BS1	I believe that learning Science and Math in English is very useful.	4.39	.75
BS2	I believe that using English in Science and Math motivates me to study harder and put more effort.	4.03	1.08
BS3	I enjoy attending Science and Math classes using English language.	3.92	1.22
BS7	I believe developing my English language in Math and Science needs more time, effort, and practice.	3.85	1.05
BS5	I become distracted in Math and Science classes due to the use of English language.	3.51	1.10
BS8	I feel I am improving at a very slow rate in Science and Math due to the use of English language.	3.50	1.15
BS4	I believe that teaching Science and Math in English is difficult.	3.35	1.30
BS20	I believe that my achievement in Science and Math could be better if I was taught in Arabic.	2.87	1.53

Science & math teaching-based beliefs

 

Table

	Item	M	SD
BS18	I believe that classroom interaction, discussion, and groupwork help me understand concepts of Science and Math in English.	4.25	.87
BS13	I believe that assessment of Science and Math should be built on what is taught in class.	4.11	.74
BS12	I believe that teachers should clarify the concepts of Science and Math in English instead of mixing English and Arabic.	4.03	.82
BS15	I feel I need more support from external resources (e.g. YouTube, tutors) to understand what is taught in class.	3.99	.99
BS17	I believe that using multimodal sources (e.g. videos; pictures, audios, documentaries, books) help in understanding concepts of Science and Math.	3.92	1.13
BS16	I think teachers should use different learning styles in Science and Math instead of lecturing only.	3.79	1.17
BS10	I believe that teachers’ high expectations don’t match our actual levels in Science and Math.	3.69	1.24
BS6	I believe that my grades in Science and Math reflect my real level and skills.	3.22	1.42

Appendix B:

Students’ challenges

Students’ challenges in English learning

Instruction-based challenges in English language learning

 

Table

	Item	M	SD
O20	Some topics are not familiar to me, and I face learning difficulties with them.	3.92	.78
O21	What is taught in my English class is different from what is assessed.	3.89	.80
O13	Our learning of English lacks real practice inside and outside of classrooms.	3.65	1.12
O19	I’m not given enough feedback that helps advance my language learning.	3.52	1.08
O14	The classroom learning environment is not comfortable for practicing English confidently.	3.36	1.19
O4	Communication with my teachers gives me feelings of stress and tension.	3.26	1.48
O1	I lack the necessary foundation and basics to further improve my proficiency in the English language.	3.25	1.41

Language skill-based challenges in English language learning

 

Table

	Item	M	SD
O6	Writing takes time, as thinking about ideas and putting them on paper is not easy	3.86	1.18
O8	I get many “brain freeze” moments while speaking.	3.71	1.18
O3	I cannot express myself right as I lack confidence.	3.62	1.33
O5	I have difficulty using advanced vocabulary to have good writing.	3.62	1.26
O9	I face difficulty in using grammar or forming correct sentences.	3.47	1.20
O2	I face difficulty in comprehending listening records.	3.39	1.31
O7	I have challenges in punctuation and spelling while writing.	3.31	1.34
O11	I face difficulty in understanding and comprehending reading texts.	3.30	1.28
O10	I cannot use the reading strategies effectively (e.g. skimming, scanning, looking for details, making inferences).	3.20	1.23

Students’ challenges in Science and Math learning

Language skill-based challenges in science & Math learning

 

Table

	Item	M	SD
C9	Misunderstanding the question in English leads to wrong answers in Science and Math exams.	4.22	.69
C11	Using google translation leads to confusion and misunderstanding in Science and Math learning.	3.97	.80
C5	I find difficulty in understanding concepts in Science and Math using English language.	3.88	.84
C4	I spend more time understanding Science and Math’s language and content.	3.81	.98
C15	The cultural differences in the international Science and Math exams (e.g. TIMSS) language prevent me from getting high scores.	3.73	.96
C13	Having a slow English reading pace affects my understanding and performance in Science and Math exams.	3.60	1.08
C2	I find difficulty in expressing what I know in Science and Math using English.	3.47	1.12

Instruction-based challenges in Science & Math learning

 

Table

	Item	M	SD
C12	The level of English used in the exams is higher than the level of English used to teach us Science and Math.	3.85	.84
C14	I lack the necessary foundation and basics to further improve my Science and Math registers in English.	3.83	.92
C3	I don’t have the motivation to ask questions during Science and Math classes.	3.81	.97
C10	The mix between Arabic and English leads to distraction and misunderstanding of the main concepts in Science and Math.	3.79	1.06
C6	English, we use to learn Science and Math in class is different from English used in their exams.	3.55	1.14
C7	I face difficulty communicating with my science and math teachers	3.45	1.07