Assessing the drivers and barriers for gender participation and roles in rod and line angling along the shores of Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe

ABSTRACT

Small-scale fisheries support numerous livelihoods in Zimbabwe. However, men are the key actors in the fishing sector relegating women to peripheral roles, often, diminishing women’s contribution to household economy and food security. This study investigated the(i) gendered nature of rod and line angling fisheries, (ii) drivers and barriers for gender roles and participation in rod and line angling fisheries, and (iii) household contribution of rod and line angling fisheries in Lake Kariba. The level of participation in fishing, and postharvest roles such as gutting, gleaning, drying, and smoking significantly differs (p < 0.05) among men and women fishers. The main drivers for engaging in rod and line angling for both men and women were a need for food security, extra income, employment, and mental health benefits. The main barriers discouraging rod and line angling were conflict with hippos, crocodiles, expensive fishing permits, park enforcement of strict fishing zones and proper gear, prohibitive costs of fishing equipment, and decline in market demand for fish. Gender does not significantly (p > 0.05) influence the opinions of the fishers towards the drivers and barriers for engaging in rod angling. Women dominate men in numbers and the roles they play, though they have inadequate decision-making powers and hardly get the recognition they deserve in the rod and line angling value chain in Lake Kariba. Developing a pro-women National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy in Zimbabwe will uplift and empower women fishers in contributing to household food security and poverty alleviation in small-scale artisanal fisheries.

KEYWORDS:

• Gender disparity
• small scale fisheries
• vulnerability
• poverty alleviation, fisheries policy

Introduction

Gender denotes culturally defined roles for women and men in social, economic, cultural, and political life not based on the biological definition of male or female (Rohe et al., 2018). Historically, fishing has been regarded as a male-dominated economic sector (Rohe et al., 2018). The narrative has always been that fishing is physically taxing and thus, men are more adapted to the demands of the sector. Moreso, the long hours spent by fishers in the waters were deemed unfriendly to women (Bradford & Katikiro, 2019). Thus, women have remained largely ‘invisible’, and are generally positioned in ‘purportedly’ light and nonphysically taxing and ‘supposedly’ lowly rewarding postharvesting roles such as fish gutting, cleaning, sorting, processing, and marketing (Béné & Merten, 2008).

However, contemporary literature has indicated that women engaged in fisheries worldwide play a wider range of roles in the fisheries value chain than thought before (Ameyaw et al., 2020). It is now widely acknowledged women are important active players in nearshore harvesting activities as well as the offshore fishing activities even though their fishing methods and techniques might be different from that of men (Harper et al., 2020; Purcell et al., 2020). Béné and Merten (2008), posited that women involved in postharvesting activities, contrary to widely held perceptions, enjoyed a narrower but slightly higher profit margin than that made by men fishers at the harvesting stages. What is not clear are the trends and drivers for shifts in gender roles in small-scale artisanal fisheries (SSAF) in Africa (Harper et al., 2017, 2020; Kleiber et al., 2017; Rohe et al., 2018; Tilley et al., 2021).

Lake Kariba, is an artificial reservoir constructed with the purpose of generating hydroelectric power for Zambia and Zimbabwe (Muringai et al., et al., 2020; Ndhlovu et al., 2017). However, other multipurpose uses such as recreation, leisure, and fisheries have emerged (Muringai, et al., 2020). Because of rising poverty levels, food insecurity, and unemployment in Zimbabwe, more locals, especially those living proximal to reservoirs, have turned to artisanal fishing as an alternative livelihood for survival (Muringai, et al., 2020). Most of the SSAF use rod and line angling to catch fish in Lake Kariba (Mupindu, 2012). Women are heavily involved in SSAF mainly through rod and line angling and in postharvest activities and in the administration of fisheries cooperatives in Lake Kariba (Mupindu, 2012). Despite the contribution fisheries make at local, national, and international level, gender disparities especially in the subsistence rod and line fisheries remain poorly studied in Lake Kariba and around the globe. Inadequate fisheries information exists that highlights the involvement of women in official statistics with the exception of processing in capture fisheries (Ameyaw et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2013).

It is important to examine and understand the gendered roles in the SSAF for a number of reasons. Mostly, the roles of women in fisheries are less paid, as they are deemed as part of the household duties of women, increasing their vulnerability to poverty (Tilley et al., 2021). The SSAFs sit within gendered social and cultural systems that perpetuate wellbeing disparities between men and women and introduces vulnerability within processes of ecological and social changes (Gopal et al., 2020; Rohe et al., 2018). Gender is central to other intersecting issues, particularly human rights abuse, gender-based violence, household food security, and climate change (Badjeck et al., 2010; FAO, 2018).

Women’s fisheries work is a key part of household food security strategies as women are responsible for daily household food consumption (Rohe et al., 2018). Enabling women to fully engage in fisheries can boost production, reduce poverty and enhance food security for fish-dependent households (FAO, 2018). Regardless, little is known of the consequences of the marginalised roles of women in the rod and line angling fisheries and on the household contribution in Lake Kariba (Muringai, et al., 2020). This study aimed to i) determine the gendered nature of rod and line angling fisheries along the shores of the Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, ii) establish the drivers and barriers for gender participation and roles within rod and line angling fisheries in Lake Kariba, and iii) assess the household contribution of rod and line angling fisheries in Kariba Town.

Study area and methods

Lake Kariba is situated between Zimbabwe and Zambia around 17°S and 28°E. It is 220 km long, has a maximum width of 40 km, mean depth of 29.5 m, maximum depth of 120 m and a surface area at average water level 5 250 square kilometres (Mabika & Barson, 2013; Magqina et al., 2021). The lake has five hydrological basins, namely; Mlibizi, Binga, Ume, Sengwa, and Sanyati (Magqina et al., 2021). The Sanyati Basin (16° 31’S, 028° 50’ E, 496 m above sea level) (Figure 1) where the study was carried out, is the most northern of them all and is also believed to be the richest of all the basins in terms of nutrients as the Sanyati River which drains a large part of Zimbabwe’s agricultural land enters into the basin (Mabika & Barson, 2013). Surface water temperatures reach 32°C in October to December and drop to 18°C between June and August. The mean monthly atmospheric temperature around Lake Kariba is usually above 20°C with distinct seasonal variation. Three seasons are distinct for Lake Kariba, namely; cool-dry from April to August, hot-dry from September to October and hot—wet from November to March (Magqina et al., 2021). Rod and line fishing space is available in the Sanyati Basin in places like Lomagundi, Lake Harvest Harbor, Greenwater, Lake Crocodile area, and Dara, all of which are close to Kariba Town. It can also be found in remote places outside of town, such as Wafawafa and Nyenje (Nhiwatiwa & Matanzima, 2022).

Figure 1. Map showing the sampling location in Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba.

Experimental design

This study adopted an integrated research design which incorporated both qualitative and quantitative data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Primary data were mainly used for this study. For the purposes of this study, the target group was the participating rod and line anglers operating along the shores of Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba. Judgemental or purposive sampling technique was used to select study participants. We were targeting only rod and line anglers (both males and females) along the shores and not any other type of fishers. One hundred and forty-five semi-structured questionnaires were administered to rod and line fishers around the shores of Lake Kariba in Sanyati Basin and a total of 100 fully filled questionnaires were returned and collected. Three focus group discussions (FGDs) one comprising 10 men, another one with 15 women rod and line anglers and the last one comprising a mixture of 10 men and 10 women were conducted. Five gender experts were interviewed as the key informants for data validation. The semi-structured questionnaires that were used to extract data included the socio-economic characteristics such as age, marital status, household numbers, educational level, year of fishing experience, type of fishery activities and the challenges facing the fishers in Lake Kariba.

Data collection and analysis

Questionnaire data were collected between April and June 2021. Questionnaires were prepared and administered in Kariba, along the shores of Sanyati Basin to anglers whilst they were fishing. Respondents were asked for their consent before administration of the questionnaire. Data collected were coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 21) software. For the qualitative data, we made use of the grounded theory which is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants that makes use of three sequential stages namely open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Open coding is the process of reading through the data to deduce meaning. Axial coding is for the identification of relationships, whilst selective coding relates to thematic analysis to derive patterns and their meaning. Qualitative data obtained from in-depth interviews were thematically analysed using Nvivo 12. For the quantitative data, we analysed for cross relations (Pearson test, p < 0.05) and significance of differences (Kruskal Anova, p < 0.05), after testing for parametricity using the Shapiro Wilk Test, p < 0.05) among selected parameters in the semi-structured questionnaire to indicate the gendered nature of the rod and line fisheries. Multivariate analysis and inference techniques were used to make inferences on the implications of the data.

Results and interpretation

Demographic data

From a total of 145 respondents interviewed, 100 fully filled questionnaires were returned and collected in the Sanyati Basin of Lake Kariba. The demography (raw results Appendix 1) men contributed 43% (n = 43) of all respondents in rod and line angling fishers sampled in the study. Women contributed a total of 57% (n = 57) of the respondents in the research. At least 47% (n = 47; 17 men and 30 women) of anglers were in the age group 36–45 years. The age group 56–65 years contains the least number of anglers, as it contributed only 1% (n = 1; woman). For women and men sampled in the rod and line angling fisheries, there was no significant difference (Kruskal Anova; p = 0.192) in their age distribution. Most of the respondents, 68% (n = 68) have attained secondary-level education, and out of the 68 respondents that have reached secondary level, both sexes constituted 50% (n = 34). Only 1% (n = 1) respondent (woman) had attained tertiary education. The results indicated that for women and men there was no significant difference (Kruskal Anova; p = 0.112) in educational levels. Most of the respondents engaged in rod and line angling in Lake Kariba, 86% (n = 86) are married. And from the 86 married respondents, 39 were men and 47 were women. The percentage of those that were single is 4% (n = 4), with men constituting 75% (n = 3) and women constituting 25% (n = 1). The percentage of those that were divorced is 9% (n = 9), with only one divorced man. There was only one widow from the sampled rod and line anglers in this study. For men and women, there was no significant difference (Kruskal Anova, p = 0.096) in their marital statuses.

In terms of dialect, majority of the respondents’ n = 79 (79%) are of Shona decent. From the 79 Shona-speaking fishers, n = 35 were men and n = 44 were women. Anglers of Tonga decent were n = 10 (10%), with men constituting 30% (n = 3) and women constituting 70% (n = 7). Only 1% (n = 1) angler (woman) indicated that they were Venda and another 1% (n = 1) (woman) indicated that they were of Shangaan decent. A total of n = 9 (9%) anglers indicated that they belonged to other ethnic groups not mentioned above. The results indicated that for men and women there was no significant difference in the ethnical backgrounds and dialects (Kruskal Anova; p = 0.599). Majority of the anglers n = 92 (92%) indicated that they were Christians. From the 92 Christian anglers, men were n = 36 and women were n = 56. Anglers who indicated that they were Muslims were n = 2 (2%), constituting one man and one woman. Those who subscribe to the African Traditional Religion were n = 5 (5%) (all men). Only 1% (n = 1) (man) indicated that he is not affiliated to any religion. For men and women rod and line anglers there was a significant difference in their religious backgrounds (Kruskal Anova; p = 0.035).

The gendered nature of rod and line fisheries

The level of participation in fishing, gutting, cleaning, drying, and smoking significantly differs (Kruskal Anova; p < 0.05) among men and women fishers in Lake Kariba. However, there was no significant difference (Kruskal Anova; p > 0.05) in the reasons for trading fish among men and women anglers in Lake Kariba (Table 1).

Table 1. The key gendered roles in rod and line anglers in Lake Kariba. Note * denotes significantly different gendered perceptions

Gendered Roles	P value for gender difference (Kruskal ANOVA)
Participation level	0.027*
Gutting	0.003*
Descaling	0.016*
Cleaning	0.007*
Drying	0.002*
Smoking	0.027*
Fish Trading	0.058

Drivers and barriers for gender participation and roles in rod and line angling in Lake Kariba

The need to secure food availability and augment nutrition drove men and women into rod and line angling (Table 2). Further, the desire to gain employment and derive an extra income for household sustainability were key drivers for both women and men to engage into rod and line angling fishing in Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba (Table 2). Notably, men and women indicated that the calming effects and other mental health benefits associated with rod and line angling was a key driver for their participation in the activity in Lake Kariba. The main drivers for engaging in rod and line angling for men and women in order of importance were for food security, extra income, employment, and mental health benefits (Table 2). Humanhippo conflict and/or humancrocodile conflict was the main barrier cited by 94% of the fishers to engaging in rod and line angling in Sanyati Basin (Table 2). Fishers indicated that they are always in constant conflict with hippos and crocodiles and are afraid to fish because of fear of being attacked by crocodiles and getting injured by hippos. The prohibitive costs of fishing permits, and proper fishing equipment in tandem with strict enforcement of no fishing zones and compliance regulations by Fisheries Authorities were notable barriers for both sexes to engage in rod and line angling in Sanyati Basin. The main barriers hindering full participation of both sexes in rod and line angling in Lake Kariba were conflict with hippos, expensive fishing permits, ZimParks enforcement of strict fishing zones and proper gear, prohibitive costs of fishing equipment and decline in market demand for fish (Table 2). The Chi-Square and Pearson Correlation test was performed in SPSS to determine the key drivers and barriers for gender disparity in rod and line angling in Lake Kariba. The results of the tests revealed that gender does not significantly (p > 0.05) influence any of the opinions of the fishers towards the drivers and barriers for engaging in rod and line angling except the need for extra income (p < 0.05) which significantly differs among men and women fishers in Lake Kariba (Table 2).

Table 2. The key drivers and barriers and the significance of difference among gender perceptions. * denotes significant values

Drivers	Ranking	P value for gender difference	Pearson determinants (p<0.05)*
Food security	1 (n=89)	0.471	0.072
Extra income	2 (n=87)	0.762	0.030*
Employment	3 (n=86)	0.991	0.991
Mental health benefits	4 (n=67)	0.227	0.232
Barriers
Conflict with hippos and crocodiles	1 (n=94)	0.721	0.724
Expensive permits	2 (n=93)	0.115	0.117
ZimParks enforcement	3 (n=87)	0.148	0.151
Cost of fishing gear	4 (n=84)	0.947	0.948
Decline in markets	5 (n=52)	0.884	0.886

The household contribution of rod and line fisheries in Kariba Town

Of the 100 interviewed rod and line anglers, 72% (n = 72; 28 men and 44 women) indicated fishing as their main source of income. However, 28% (n = 28) of the respondents highlighted that fishing was not their main source of income. Of the 28 that indicated fishing was not their main source of income, n = 15 were men and n = 13 were women (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Fishing as the main source of income by gender.

Figure 3 shows that 64% (n = 64) of the respondents do not have any other income generating activities besides fishing. Of the 64, n = 23 were men and n = 41 where women. On the other hand, 36% (n = 36) of the respondents have other income generating activities besides fishing (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Other income generating activities besides fishing partitioned by gender.

At least 64% (n = 64; 23 men and 41 women) of the respondents indicated that all the fish they catch is not for home consumption only (Figure 4). Nonetheless, 36% (n = 36; 20 men and 16 women) of the respondents highlighted that all the fish they catch is only for home consumption.

Figure 4. Determination of the household consumption purposes of fish partitioned by gender in Lake Kariba.

Of the 66 respondents who indicated that their catches were not for home consumption, only n = 18 indicated that they sell < 25% of their catch and from the 18, n = 6 where men and n = 12 being women (Figure 5). The respondents who indicated that they sell 26–50% of their total catch were n = 29, with the men being n = 7 and women n = 22. Those that indicated that they sell 5175% of their total catch were n = 8 with men being n = 3 and women n = 5. A total of n = 11 indicated that they sell 76–100% of their total catch with men being n = 8 and women n = 3 (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Fish catch % being sold by different gender in Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba.

Out of a total of 66 respondents who indicated that their catches were not only for home consumption only 2 of the respondents sell their fish at a price of $1 per kg and all of them were women (Figure 6). Respondents who highlighted that they sell their fish at $1.50 per kg were n = 6, and all of them were men. A total of n = 52 respondents comprising n = 13 men and n = 39 women indicated that their selling price was at $2.00 per kg. At least, n = 6 of the respondents comprising n = 5 men and n = 1 woman indicated that their selling price was $2.50 per kg (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Price of fish set by different gender in Sanyati Basin.

Out of a total of 66 respondents who indicated that their catches were not only for home consumption at least 64 comprising 23 men and 41 women indicated that the income they get from fish is for the household (Figure 7). Only n = 2 of the respondents (all men) revealed that the income they get from fish is for their own personal use (Figure 7). Majority of the anglers in Lake Kariba do not have fish trading permits, hence they sell their fish illegally and at different prices determined by demand and supply dynamics.

Figure 7. Use of income generated from fishing by different gender in Sanyati Basin.

Of the 66 respondents who indicated that their catch is not for household consumption only, 80.3% (n = 53; 18 men, 35 women) of the respondents indicated that they sometimes exchange fish for other goods. At least 19.7% (n = 13; 6 men, 7 women) of the respondents indicated that they do not indulge in exchanging fish with other goods (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Percentage of barter exchange of fish by different gender in Sanyati Basin.

A total of 66 respondents indicated that their catch is not for household consumption. Out of this 66 a majority, 63 (95.5%) of the respondents comprising 23 men and 40 women indicated that they exchange fish for food. Only 3 (4.5%) of the respondents comprising n = 2 men and 1 woman indicated that they exchange fish for clothes (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Goods being exchanged for fish by different gender in Sanyati Basin.

Discussion

Demographic characteristics of rod and line anglers in Sanyati Basin

Rod and line angling fisheries activities in the sampled Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba are dominated by women. The women fishers indicated, in the FGDs, that they venture into rod and line angling to catch fish for enhanced food security, earn extra income to buy household accessories and provisions and barter fish for other necessary food items not easily found in Kariba. Women fishers further cited the ‘light nature’ of rod and line angling as an attractant to fishing as very few of them venture into the more physically demanding outboard gill net fishing and kapenta rigging prevalent in Lake Kariba (Mupindu, 2012). The women fishers aver that the long working hours and lack of proper sanitation facilities in outboard fishing are more of a problem for women than for men. Moreso, women’s child care and other household duty responsibilities restricts their participation in outboard fishing confining their fishing activities to the shorelines (Bradford & Katikiro, 2019; Mupindu, 2012; Zhao et al., 2013). This partly explains the slight numerical dominance of women in rod and line angling in Sanyati Basin.

The most active age group among the anglers was the 35–45 years’ age group, which was dominated by women. The domination of anglers, particularly by women in the 35–45 age bracket, may be related to the fact that most males in this age group tend to be employed in the kapenta rigs or boats and tend to go for long physical hours which may not suit women (Bradford & Katikiro, 2019; Mupindu, 2012; Nhiwatiwa & Matanzima, 2022).

The educational status of rod and line anglers revealed that most of them have attained up to secondary-level education. Fishers in small-scale artisanal fisheries have different levels of education and skills that makes them adaptable to changes in environmental and economic contexts at the local microscale (Kupaza et al., 2015). Having failed to secure formal employment or lost formal employment in the manufacturing sector in the neighbouring cities and towns, locals venture into fisheries in search of income to sustain livelihoods in Zimbabwe. The relative dominance of married women and men in the fishing industry indicates the importance and contribution of both women and men in generating cash and food for the family, as well as reducing female vulnerability within the family (Cliffe & Akinrotimi, 2015). The high participation of married women in fishery plays a key role in creating a bargaining position for women in their marriages and helps to increase and diversify household livelihoods (Ng’onga et al., 2019).

The gendered nature of rod and line fisheries

The level of participation in fishing, fish gutting, descaling, cleaning, drying and smoking significantly differs among women and men fishers in Lake Kariba. Most of the roles in Kariba rod and line fishing value chain are dominated by women, who are heavily involved in most of the activities from harvesting, processing, and sale of the fish. The findings are consistent with those of Harper et al. (2013) who found that while certain fishing activities are dominated by men, others are dominated by women. Women are involved in many parts of the fisheries value chain, including fishing, processing, and sale, as well as finance, but many of these activities have been disregarded and continue to be under-appreciated in fisheries management and policy development. Harper et al. (2020) indicated that the contribution of women within the fisheries sector is often overlooked yet they are more actively invoved than before, and at times play more active roles than men who just tend to concentrate on the physical fishing.

Women dominate men in the harvesting of fish using rod angling although the margins recorded in the study need a follow-up validation sample. Ndhlovu et al. (2017) indicated that in SSAFs in Lake Kariba the number of women is low as compared to that of men. The study by Ndhlovu et al. (2017) covered a large portion of the Lake and included other fishing methods such as gill and seine netting, and thus, could have been more representative. Zhao et al. (2013) indicated that women are found in the physical fish catching sector in a small minority. Nonetheless, Rohe et al. (2018) indicated that women account for 56% of small-scale fishing captures in the Pacific Region though women use less advanced fishing gear and methods’. Most men use sophisticated machine rods in place of traditional fishing logs (mutepe), and most women fish sitting on their buckets on the shores due to a fear of hippos and crocodiles, but most men tend to wade into the water to the ‘waist’ or mazamu ‘breasts’ level in Lake Kariba (Nhiwatiwa & Matanzima, 2022). Females dominate the postharvest stages of rod angling fishing in Lake Kariba and take prominent active roles like fish gutting, descaling, drying, cleaning, and smoking.

Nonetheless, there was no significant gender difference in the reasons for trading fish catches implying that women and men are equally actively involved in trading fish for almost similar purposes mainly but not limited to the need for an extra income. Once the fish has been processed (mostly by women), it is sold either fresh, dried or smoked at the primary markets (Ameyaw et al., 2020). Majority of the anglers in Lake Kariba do not have fish trading permits, hence they sell their fish illegally. The fish traders do not trade openly, neither do they display their catch or advertising posters on their homes indicating that they sell fish, because they are afraid of being arrested by ZIMPARKS officials since they are not in possession of licenced trading permits. Moreso, the price disparity observed in this study relates to the lack of a centralized and formal marketing system for fish products in Zimbabwe. These findings are similar to those of Mupindu (2012) who stated that fish sellers in Zambia, particularly women, trade more freely and openly than those in Zimbabwe because no licenses or permits are necessary for fish trading in Zambia.

Drivers and barriers for gender participation and roles in rod and line angling in Lake Kariba

This study indicated the need for employment, extra income, food security, and mental health benefits as the main drivers for respondents to venture into rod and line angling on the shores of Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba. Muringai, et al. (2020) indicated that agriculture is not allowed in Kariba as the region is a widlife and safari area. Thus, acquring food tends to be difficult as one is required to purchase from retail shops. Most fisherfolks are venturing into rod and line angling to get food and gain income to buy other household accessories. BÉNÉ (2003) and Utete et al. (2019) indicated that small-scale inland fisheries serve multiple purposes, although food security, food nutrition and an income to alleviate poverty form the main basis for continued operations.

Gender does not significantly influence any of the opinions of the fishers towards the drivers, implying that both men and women venture into rod and line fishing for the same reasons except for the differences in their perceptions towards the need for an extra income in Lake Kariba. Mostly, women rather than men highlighted the need for an extra income as the main reason for venturing into rod and line fishing. Women, generally considered among the poorest and most marginalized groups in the global south, can earn money in the fishing sector (Harper et al., 2013). Zimbabwe has an over 90% unemployment rate, and many women have turned to informal economic activities to supplement their income. Local tourism and fishing industries such as houseboats and kapenta fishing exclusively employ men, and local crocodile and fisheries companies employ more men than women because the jobs require more ‘masculine’ power and extended working hours. Consequently, women are rarely attracted to such time-consuming jobs due to other social obligations and as a result, the bulk of unemployed women are drawn to artisanal fishing in Lake Kariba (Nhiwatiwa & Matanzima, 2022). These findings agree with those of Harper et al. (2013) who indicated that women’s participation in the fish trade has become deeply ingrained in the culture of some sections of Mozambique, both as a means of supplementing modest household earnings and because the bulk of men breadwinners are increasingly employed in South African mines.

Liontakis et al. (2020) reflected that most women venture into fisheries because their family’s income will be under threat, and this instigates diversification of activities to secure sufficient family earnings. Also, by earning their own money, women may achieve more economic influence in household dynamics. Women gain financial independence by controlling their money and being able to select how and on what to spend it, as opposed to being financially controlled by males (Geheb et al., 2008; Manyungwa et al., 2019). Women are frequently the primary care givers for their families, and they are in charge of home finances and food preparation (Bradford & Katikiro, 2019). Consequently, most of the money earned by women is used to meet everyday household needs like buying food, whereas the majority of money generated by men is spent for personal purposes that do not necessarily benefit entire households (Bradford & Katikiro, 2019; Geheb et al., 2008; Manyungwa et al., 2019). When men spend money on the household, it will be typically for large, one-time payments such as medical emergencies or school fees (Geheb et al., 2008).

Women and men fishers indicated that the prohibitive cost of fishing gear, and fishing permits, strict enforcement of reguations by ZimParks, decline in market demand for fish, and conflict with hippos and crocodiles are the key barriers in rod and line angling in Lake Kariba. Ndhlovu et al. (2017) indicated that there is competion between fishers and wild animals such as hippopotamus and crocodiles for the remaining fishing grounds with these wild animals, disrupting fishing activies by damaging fishing gears, inflicting injuries to fisher folks and sometimes even killing them.

Conflict with ZimParks officicials was another barrier that was indicated by rod-line anglers. ZimParks officials have a mandate to patrol and curb illegal activities in and around the lake. The patrols result in conflicts as rangers are accused of chasing and confiscating fishing equipment and the catch and heavily penalising fisherfolks with fines and even imprisonment in extreme cases (Ndhlovu et al., 2017). Kupaza et al. (2015) asserted that livelihood strategies are an outcome of institutional structures and their relationship with other processes. In Lake Kariba, the rod and line fishers are affected by institutional processes between the authorities and the anglers hence the need for consultations with all stakeholders through organizing regular interactive workshops. This calls for a need to integrate the fishers in conflict resolution and drafting and implementation of appropriate policies. The prohibitive costs of fishing equipment was also mentioned by men and women fishers as a barrier to getting into rod and line angling in Lake Kariba. Nhiwatiwa and Matanzima (2022), indicated that when people do not have enough money to buy the fishing gear they need, they do not go fishing until they do, either by borrowing money or borrowing gear from friends.

Both women and men highlighted the decline in fish demand as a barrier for venturing into rod and line fishing in Lake Kariba. A women angler’s focus group indicated that

locally demand of fish declined as a result of the temporary closure of restaurants and other fish selling retail outlets during COVID 19, and as a result fish ended up being sold locally at very cheap prices and this negatively affected their livelihoods as they are heavily reliant on income from fish. The findings are similar to those of Bennett et al. (2020) who stated that market disruptions had knock-on economic effects affecting small-scale fishers

ability to pursue their livelihoods through ‘twin disasters’ of reduced demand and attendant price collapses due to the closure of some key exporting ports and the cessation of shipping and air freight. According to the FAO (2021), due to a drop in demand, most fishers and fishing fleets have stopped or reduced their fishing activity because it is no longer lucrative.

The household contribution of rod and line fisheries in Kariba Town

Both women and men in rod and line angling heavily depend on fishing to earn a living and thus, any change that occurs in the fisheries sector substantially affect their livelihoods in Lake Kariba (Ameyaw et al., 2020). By selling their catch to both local and foreign customers, the households gain valuable income used to buy other food stuffs such as cooking oil, mealie meal, sugar, and salt. Further, the income generated from selling fish can be used to cater for rentals, medical bills, and pay school fees. The findings agree with Ndhlovu et al. (2017) who indicated that households and individuals in Lake Kariba largely depend on fisheries as the main livelihood and source of income and food. Often the fishers do not get direct cash from fish as they sometimes bartered fish catches with other products such as food and clothes.

As highlighted by Muringai, et al. (2020), the Zimbabwean Statutory Instrument 362 of 1990 section 97(1) of the Parks and Wildlife (General) regulations advocated that farming and livestock rearing are not permitted in the areas surrounding Lake Kariba including Sanyati Basin as the areas fall within the wildlife safari area and national parks estates. People from neighbouring towns and comunities such as Karoi and Magunje bring in foodstuffs such as maize, beans, sweet potatoes, fresh and dried vegetatables and other produce to barter trade with fish. The study results resonate with Ameyaw et al. (2020) who indicated that in western Ghana for years, neighbouring villages surrounding Aboadze who are mainly farmers, bring foodstuffs like cassava, plantain, palm nuts and other produce to barter trade for fish twice a week (Tuesdays and Fridays), as an innovative approach to housekeeping. Ndhlovu et al. (2017), established that most households have limited food options, and are therefore highly dependent on fish as the main component of their diet.

Conclusions, limitations, and future recommendations

Women dominate both in numbers and the roles they play along the rod and line angling value chain but not in decision-making powers and they do not get the recognition they deserve in Lake Kariba. Subtly, this reveals the power and decision-making dynamics where women fishers still play peripheral roles though they outnumber male fishers in the rod and line angling fishing chain. The onus is on widening the spatial extent and temporal lag of similar studies to fully comprehend the gender complexity in fisheries in large reservoirs such as Lake Kariba in the future which was a limitation in this study. Bureaucratic institutional processes, expensive fishing gear and the inevitable human-hippo and human-crocodile conflicts represent multilayered complexity to rod-line anglers in Lake Kariba.

This study recommends for a gender and sex disaggregated investigation in SSAFs such as rod-line angling, deliberate inclusion of pro-women fishers’ clauses, and a holistic inclusion of fishers needs in the promulgation of the National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy for Zimbabwe. However, there is a need for a clear road map with timelines and into incorporating and mainstreaming gender and sex disaggregrated sections which ring fence, incentivise and protect female fishers into the National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy for Zimbabwe to encourage participation of female fishers as a poverty alleviation and food security enhancement strategy. Future research should delve deeper into the gender nuances of rod-line anglers and the environmental and socioeconomic challenges facing female fishers in the shorelines of Lake Kariba.

Acknowledgements

Our sincere gratitude to Mollyn Tachekwa, Benjamin Bonzo and Brenda Muchichwa for assisting with data collection and Honest Madamombe for assisting with the maps. Special thanks goes to the Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute and Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Authority for availing resources and facilities for this research.

Disclosure statement

To the authors knowledge there was no financial, legal or whatsoever conflict of interest for this paper.

Data availability statement

There is no additional data associated with this paper.

Supplemental material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2024.2345451

Additional information

Funding

There was no funding associated with this paper.

Appendix 1:

Questionnaire

School of Wildlife and Environmental Sciences

Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation

Dear respondent

RE: ACADEMIC RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

My name is Tamuka Elvis Chapata. I am a BSc Wildlife Ecology and Conservation student in the School of Wildlife, Ecology, and Conservation at Chinhoyi University of Technology. I am conducting a research study titled “Drivers and barriers for gender disparity in rod angling along the shores of Sanyati Basin in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe”. To that end, you are kindly requested to answer the questions on the questionnaire below.

Please note:

• Your participation is voluntary and you can withdraw at any time without penalty.

• All data will remain STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL and will be used solely for the purpose of this research study

i) Questionnaire number … … … … … … … … Date … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … .

ii) GPS Location: Loc X … … … … … … … … … … … … …Loc Y … … … … … … … … … … … … … …

NB: Please circle or mark with an X on the desired answer.

Section A: Demography of rod anglers

A 1. Age of Respondent:

Table

<25 yrs

2. 26 –35 yrs

3. 36 -45 yrs

4. 46 -55 yrs

5. 56 -65 yrs

6. 66 > yrs

A 2. Gender of respondent

Table

Male

Female

A 3. Marital status:

Table

Single

Married

Divorced

Widowed

A 4. Are you the household head?

Table

Yes

No

A 5. Total number of household members:

Table

<3 people

4–6 people

7–9 people

10 >people

A 6. Total number of household dependents:

Table

<3 people

4–6 people

7–9 people

10 >people

A 7. Respondent’s educational level:

Table

No formal education

Primary school education

Secondary school education

Tertiary education

A 8. What tribe do you belong?

Table

Tonga

Shona

Ndebele

Shangaan

Venda

Others

A 9. To which religion do you belong to?

Table

Christianity

Muslim

African Traditional

Others

Non

Section B Food nutrition and security

B 1. How long have been in the fisheries sector?

Table

<1 yr

2–3 yrs’.

yrs’.

6 > yrs’.

B 2. What is your level of participation in the fisheries sector?

Table

seasonal

Part time

Full time

B 3. Are you involved in doing these activities If the answer is YES, mark appropriate box with “X”)?

Table

Gutting
Descaling
Gleaning
Drying
Smoking

B 4. Is fishing your main source of income?

Table

Yes

No

B 5. Do you have access to any other income generating activities?

Table

Yes

No

a. If yes, please give details

B 6. Approximately how much fish do you catch per day?……………kg

B 7. Which fish type do you prefer the most?………………………………….

B 8. Does all the fish you catch all for home consumption?

Table

Yes

No

B 9. What percentage do you sell?…………………Kgs

Table

Source of food	Rank
1. Purchasing
2. Home food production/ gardening
3. Food aid/ donations

B 10. At what price do you sell your fish per/kg … … … … … … … $/kg

B 11. What are your main sources of food? (Use numbers 1 to 4 to rank the sources, 1= main source of food and 4 = is the least source of food.

B 12. How many meals do you usually eat per day? … … … … … … …

B 13. How many days per week do you eat the following?

Table

	Fish	Meat	Vegetables
No of days

B 14. Have you ever slept without eating because of lack of food?

Table

Yes

No

B 15. Does your household ever run out of money to buy food?

Table

Yes

No

B 16. Do you sometimes eat less than what you should eat?

Table

Yes

No

B 17. If answer to ‘f’ is YES, can you please state why. (mark appropriate box with “X”)

Table

Not enough money for food
Kinds of food (I/we) want not available
Not enough time for shopping or cooking
Too hard to get to the store
On a special diet

B 18. Is your household food secure? (have food available and access all the time)

Table

Yes

No

Section C: Challenge and successes in rod angling fisheries

E 1. What challenges and successes in the fisheries sector?

Table

Challenges	Yes	No
Fishing permits
Credible Sources of information about developments in the industry.
Decline in demand
Strict parks enforcement of no fishing zones
Uncertainty in fish prices
Gender discrimination
Costs of Fishing equipment’s and spares
Cultural discrimination
Water contamination
Conflicts with crocodiles and hippos
Transport of harvest
Suitable post-harvest storage facilities
Successes in fisheries
Sustainable catches
Extra income
Employment
Food security
Improved nutrition
Networks and collaboration
Training from Parks and other authorities
Mental health benefits
Conservation benefits

Section D: ACCESS TO LIVELIHOOD ENTITLEMENTS/ASSETS/SERVICES

Table

Does your household have the opportunity in practice to use the following when you need them?	Yes	No	Distance (km and minutes) from the nearest asset or service
1. Sources of safe drinking water
2.Sanitation
3. Electricity
4. Market
5. Land (roads, rail etc) or water transports that connects nearest town
6.Cooperative office/service
7. Food office/service
8. Disaster office/service
9.Local government office/service
10. Fisheries office/service
11. Fisheries extension office/service
12. Police office/service
14. Government information office/service
15. Local political leaders
16. Local community leaders

Section F: Human Wildlife Conflict

F 1. Have you ever encountered problems with wild animals namely hippos and crocodile?

Table

Yes

No

F 2. If yes, what is the nature of the problem and how does it affect rod and line angling?

Table

Crocodiles
Hippos

F 3. What strategies do you in cooperate to mitigate the problems for both Hippos and Crocodiles?

Table

Crocodiles
Hippo

F 4. Where do you report incidents of Human Wildlife Conflict? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

F 5. What form of assistance do you get from the organisation? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

F 6. Are you satisfied by the way the above mentioned organisation is handling Human Wildlife Conflict cases involving hippos and crocodiles? Yes_____ No_____

Section F: Suggestions and recommendations for sustained women participation in angling

E 1. Are they services that support anglers in your community? Yes No

E 2. Do these services include direct support for women’s activities? Yes No

E 3. In what ways is the support given?

Fisheries activities … … … … . Non- income generating activities … … … … .

Domestic activities … … … … . Credit, savings, investment … … … .

E 4. From whom is the support coming from? ZimParks … … … … … NGOs … … … … … … … Political Party … … … . Trade unions … … … … Cooperatives … … …

E 5. What do you think can be done improve women participation in angling in Kariba?

provide a forum to meet other women from the rod line angling

represent women when talking to governments

raise awareness of women’s issues in the industry by holding workshops, meetings, conferences

promote fishing-related training opportunities for women

provide a forum to identify and work to remove barriers to women’s advancement in the rod line angling

develop a national focus for representing women’s fishing issues

develop a data base or information source on women in the industry

Thank you!

Appendix 2: Focus Group Discussion

School of Wildlife And Environmental Sciences

Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation

Checklists for Focus Group Discussion (FGDs)

1. Household contribution of rod and line angling

   1. Do you basically have adequate food in your homes?

   2. Do you remember the times when food was very scarce and what were the causes?

   3. So venturing into rod line angling or fishing in general was meant to do what?

   4. So after venturing into rod angling fishing do you lack any food have the fish catered for some food nutrition, security issues?

   5. Do you sell or exchange it for other food stuffs?

   6. Is there evidence that increased earnings lead to increased food purchases?

   7. If not fishing what other income generating activities are you involved in?

   8. Given a chance would the communities members stay in rod angling fishing?

2. Gender participation

   1. Who does most of the rod angling fishing in the dam, man or women

   2. Why is it like that. Has the trend changed over the years?

   3. How did the genders involved view it at first and what has changed?

   4. how/what can be done to improve gender parity in rod angling fishing?

   5. How can the authorities Parks and communities encourage women participation?

3. So far how do you view the experience?