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Review Article

Chronological framework of the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt, southeastern Tibet: implications for Cenozoic tectonothermal evolution

Xiao-Fei Guoa School of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, PR ChinaCorrespondence[email protected]
ORCID Iconhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-6627-3533View further author information
ORCID Icon &
Qing-Long Wangb Periodical Press, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, PR ChinaView further author information
Pages 1-20 | Received 21 Nov 2023, Accepted 22 Apr 2024, Published online: 09 May 2024

ABSTRACT

The response mechanism of the southeastern Tibet Plateau to the Indian-Eurasian collision is still controversial. The widely distributed shear systems in the Sanjiang area especially Ailaoshan-Red River shear system contribute a window to understand the tectonic evolution. Here we compile comprehensive geochronological data of the high-grade metamorphic rocks from the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system. The data reveal that the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt should be metamorphic complex with Middle-Late Triassic magmatic rocks and Cenozoic granites besides the Precambrian basement. The Cenozoic U-Pb age results of granitic rocks by accessory mineral within the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system range from ~41 Ma to ~20 Ma. The results of Ar-Ar dating of various minerals are in the range of ~40–5 Ma, concentrated in ~35–20 Ma. The U-Pb age results coincide basically with Ar-Ar data, indicating a rapid cooling process and reflecting a possible tectonic transition at ~20 Ma. The metamorphism and magmatism since the Cenozoic were not only unique to the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt, but also existed in the Chongshan and Gaoligongshan metamorphic belts. We infer that the Sanjiang area has a similar lateral extrusion deformation background and corresponds to the response of the India-Eurasia convergence process.

1. Introduction

Over the last several decades, researches on Cenozoic tectonics of the southeastern regions of the eastern Himalayan Syntaxis play a crucial role in understanding eastward extrusion of the Tibetan Plateau and even tectonic evolution of SE Asia. The India-Eurasia collision about 55 Ma caused the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau and the rise of the Himalaya, and at the same time induced the middle and lower crustal activities in the Southeast Tibet, which changed the crustal structure of the Cenozoic era and shaped the present geomorphic pattern. In recent years, several models have been proposed to explain the deep-shallow response of the lateral collision zone, such as rigid block extrusion, middle and lower crust channel flow, and crust thickening (X. Y. Chen et al. Citation2024). Lithospheric shortening was subsequently accommodated by subduction of continental lithosphere and in part by southeastward extrusion tectonics facilitated by strike-slip motion (Deng et al. Citation2014; Feng et al. Citation2022; Leloup et al. Citation1995; Yin & Harrison, Citation2000). The most conspicuous feature in southeastern Tibet during Cenozoic is the development of many strike-slip shear systems. These shear systems can be roughly classified into three categories, which are distributed in three rivers area (Sanjiang area) from west to east: (1) the Gaoligongshan dextral strike-slip shear system; (2) the Chongshan sinistral strike-slip shear system; and (3) the Ailaoshan-Red River sinistral shear system (; Akciz et al. Citation2008; J. Y. Li et al. Citation2023; Y. J. Wang et al. Citation2006; B. Zhang et al. Citation2017).

Figure 1. (a) Tectonic framework of Cenozoic shear systems in the Sanjiang region (modified after Deng et al. Citation2014). (b) Simplified crust structure of NE-SW interpretative cross-section across the Sanjiang region (revised from Socquet & Pubellier, Citation2005).

Figure 1. (a) Tectonic framework of Cenozoic shear systems in the Sanjiang region (modified after Deng et al. Citation2014). (b) Simplified crust structure of NE-SW interpretative cross-section across the Sanjiang region (revised from Socquet & Pubellier, Citation2005).

Along the strike-slip shear systems there developed many isolated narrow metamorphic belts consisting of high- and ultrahigh-grade metamorphic rocks. For example, along the Gaoligongshan shear system there developed Gaoligongshan metamorphic series, along the Chongshan shear system there developed Chongshan metamorphic series and along the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system there developed successively Xuelongshan, Diancangshan, Ailaoshan and Dui Nui Con Voi metamorphic series from northwest to southeast. They suffered multiple intense ductile shearing metamorphism, experienced variable degrees of mylonitisation and migmatization and showed episodic characteristics of thermal action (J. Y. Li et al. Citation2023; Searle, Citation2006; L. S. Zhang & Schärer, Citation1999). These major strike-slip shear systems accommodated large-scale eastward displacement of the southeastern Tibetan syntaxis. However, their relationship and response mechanism to India-Eurasia collision still remain uncertain. The deformation characteristics of each shear zone and the starting time of each stage of deformation are still controversial (Chung et al. Citation2005; Eroglu et al. Citation2013; J. Y. Li et al. Citation2021; H. C. Liu et al. Citation2015). Determining the spatio-temporal variation of deformation patterns is helpful to understanding the Indo-Eurasian continental collision process.

The Jinshajiang-Ailaoshan alkali-rich intrusive rock is closely related to Ailaoshan shear zone because of its distribution location and intrusion age. For example, the Daping gold deposit in the southeast margin of Ailaoshan tectonic belt is believed to have been formed by crustal thickening caused by the near-north-south collision between India and Eurasia during 46–42 Ma, while the nearby Chang’an gold deposit was formed in the late stage of strike-slip at 23–21 Ma (L. Yang et al. Citation2021). This type of potassium-ultrapotassium magma is believed to be the result of continental lithosphere delamination, and the weakening of the lithosphere created favourable conditions for the initiation of the Ailaoshan-Red River fault and the extrusion of the Indochina block to the southeast (Feng et al. Citation2022). Some scholars even divided the post-collision alkaline rocks into three stages >32 Ma, 32–17 Ma and <17 Ma, corresponding to three categories of products in turn: lithospheric thinning asthenosphere upwelling heating residual lithospheric mantle and thickening lower crust partial melting products, both asthenosphere and enriched lithospheric mantle geochemical characteristics products, and asthenosphere upwelling decompression melting products under extensional background (Kang et al. Citation2022). As for Cenozoic rocks in the shear zone, based on structural observation and interpretation, some scholars also divided them into three stages from the perspective of tectonic-magmatic activities as pre-kinematic, syn-kinematic and post-kinematic, with specific time periods of (41–30 Ma), (28–23 Ma) and (23 Ma-) (J. L. Liu et al. Citation2020). It is generally believed that the pre-shear magmatic event may be the result of the collapse of the thickened crust caused by early orogenic extrusion, and the syn-shear period is the material flow on the crust scale provided by the pre-shear magmatic heat source. Therefore, the tectonic-magmatic activity of Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone is of great theoretical and practical significance to reveal the vertical and lateral movement of crustal materials during continent to continent collision and to guide the metallogenic exploration work.

In this paper, we documented comprehensive data of geochronological work on the high-grade metamorphic rocks from the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system. We compiled an overview and re-evaluation of magmatism and metamorphism in the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system with regard to: (1) the properties of the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt; (2) the timing of emplacement of the leucogranitic rocks and metamorphism of accompanied gneissic rocks during Cenozoic era. We also attempt to compare the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system to the Chongshan and Gaoligongshan shear systems in order to refine our understanding of eastward extrusion of the Tibetan Plateau in Sanjiang area. These works will shed light on the India-Eurasia interactions and Cenozoic evolution of Southeast Asia.

2. Geological background

The Jinshajiang-Ailaoshan suture defines the Late Triassic closure of the late Paleozoic Jinshajiang-Ailaoshan Branch Ocean or back arc basin during the Carboniferous (H. C. Liu et al. Citation2015; Metcalfe, Citation2006; Zi et al. Citation2012). This suture/collision zone was reactivated during Late Cretaceous subduction and Palaeogene collision between the Indian and Asian continents (Hou et al. Citation2003), and large thrust and strike-slip faults developed upon or along the reactivated collision zone (Gilley et al. Citation2003). This has led intense deformation and partial melting in the crust and upper mantle in Tibet and in Southeast Asia (Nelson et al. Citation1996; Zhong et al. Citation2000). The NW-SE Ailaoshan-Red River shear system forms the southwestern boundary of the Yangtze block along Red River fault relative to the Indochina block (Cai et al. Citation2015). It is made up of four narrow, semi-continuous high-grade metamorphic massifs involving Xuelongshan (XLS), Diancangshan (DCS), Ailaoshan (ALS) metamorphic belts in China and Day Nui Con Voi (DNCV) metamorphic belt in Vietnam, which further extend easterly into the South China Sea.

The ALS metamorphic belt is located in the eastern Tibet with border of the Midu Mesozoic metamorphic strata across DCS to the northwest and DNCV metamorphic belt to the southeast (B. Zhang et al. Citation2017). This metamorphic belt is composed of two structurally juxtaposed successions namely the eastern high-grade metamorphic rocks between the Red-River and Ailaoshan faults and the western low-grade metamorphic rocks between the Ailaoshan and Lixianjiang faults (F. L. Liu et al. Citation2015). The high-grade metamorphic belt is dominated by amphibolite to granulite facies paragneiss, mylonitised granitic gneiss, marble, leucogranite and migmatite and amphibolite (). The low-grade metamorphic belt mainly comprises Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata of low greenschist slate, phyllite, schist, chert and exotic limestone and associated volcanic rocks (J. J. Zhang et al. Citation2006).

Figure 2. Tectonic outline of Southeast Asia (a) and simplified geological map of the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone (b). Age dating with references on the map are listed in Table 1.

Figure 2. Tectonic outline of Southeast Asia (a) and simplified geological map of the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone (b). Age dating with references on the map are listed in Table 1.

The high-grade metamorphic rocks in ALS metamorphic belt were previously mapped as Ailaoshan Group, which was believed to represent the Yangtze Block. Due to superimposed metamorphism and migmatization, the original rocks bedding planes disappeared with complex lithology features. Most amphibolite facies gneiss is foliated and parallel to the shear system with sinistral shear kinematics indicators. They show a well-developed foliation bearing a strong sub-horizontal stretching lineation. These rocks display deformation of recrystallisation and accompanied anatectic melting affected by left-lateral shear and fold, thrust and brittle ductile shear structures (e.g. Anczkiewicz et al. Citation2007; Cao, Liu, et al. Citation2011; Jolivet et al. Citation2001; Tapponnier et al. Citation1990). Shear zone, as a strong strain localisation zone in the collision orogenic belt, is an important part of the development of continental crust deformation structures. Crustal metamorphism is characterised by anatexis, forming various types of migmatite, gneiss and mylonite, etc. The structures of the rocks in the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone in the southeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau indicate its kinematic characteristics ().

Figure 3. Field and microscopic photos of migmatite, gneiss and mylonite in ASRR shear system.

Field photos (a) and microscopic photos (b) of migmatite taken from Manhao in the southern section; Field photos (c) and microscopic photos (d) of migmatite from Mosha in the north section; Field photos (e) and microscopic photos (f) of granitic gneiss from Xinping in the north section; Field photos (g and i) and microscopic photos (h and j) of mylonite from Xinping in the north section (Qz-quartz, Pl-plagioclase, Bi-biotite, Amp-hornblende, Mus-Muscovite).
Figure 3. Field and microscopic photos of migmatite, gneiss and mylonite in ASRR shear system.

3. Material and methods

We have reviewed almost all published records of Cenozoic-related magmatic and metamorphic rocks in the Sanjiang shear systems in southeast Tibet, mainly focusing on zircon U-Pb ages and Ar ages of various minerals. The methods used for U-Pb dating include zircon SHRIMP, SIMS, and LA-ICP-MS. Although the interpretation of age results may vary due to the differences in accuracy of the aforementioned test methods. However, we found that there are mainly three types of zircons used for U-Pb dating: high U content zircons with darker colours and low U content zircons with lighter colours, and zircons with a combination of the two characteristics, that is, light core and dark rim. Most zircons have magmatic crystallisation oscillating belts, and the frequently seen ‘black zircons’ with high Th and U content may be the result of gas-liquid metasomatism of magmatic rocks in the late differentiation period, which is similar to the characteristics of middle and late crystalline zircons in highly differentiated granite. Although affected by hydrothermal fluid metasomatism, the published zircon age data show that the ages of some dark and light-coloured zircons are close to each other, indicating that the U-Pb isotope system has not been completely destroyed, which can represent the crystallisation age of the granite. Zircon U-Pb age references and locations for each sample are listed in . The age of about 1500 zircon grains from238U-206Pb to Th/U ratio in the compiled list is shown in . The Th/U zircon data of Cenozoic granitic rocks in Ailaoshan tectonic belt show that the rocks in the shear zone have a high U content, and the Th/U ratio exists in two cases: > 0.1 and < 0.1. In fact, 0.1 is the previously thought limit of magmatic and metamorphic zircon.

Figure 4. Age (ma) versus Th/U ratio for granitic samples from the ASRR shearing system compiled from the literatures.

Figure 4. Age (ma) versus Th/U ratio for granitic samples from the ASRR shearing system compiled from the literatures.

Table 1. U-Pb age data within the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone in southeastern Tibet.

As mentioned above, some of the Cenozoic granitic rocks in Ailaoshan tectonic belt are affected by hydrothermal fluid metasomatism, so the rock-forming minerals under alteration can be used to indicate the time of hydrothermal activity. Therefore, the Ar age of the Cenozoic granitic rocks such as plagioclase, biotite and hornblende in the shear system of Sanjiang area, southeast Tibet are also collected. It should be noted that unlike the age spectrum we have applied to detrital U-Pb zircon ages, detailed correlation of lithology, location, and metamorphic evolution is required when determining Ar ages. The cooling path must be reconstructed from argon ages obtained from multiple mineral separations within the same rock or near the same rock type close to the outcrop. Because Ailaoshan tectonic belt has experienced complex heterogeneous deformation events, the age data of different geological units may have undergone different metamorphism and tectonic evolution. By compiling these age data together, the obtained chronological framework only provides the temporal significance of metamorphic deformation as a reference for the tectonic evolution of the region.

4. Chronological framework

4.1. The properties of the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt

Some researchers generally believe that the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt is a part of Yangtze basement (Sha et al. Citation1999; Zhai & Cong, Citation1993; Zhai et al. Citation1990). However, with the development and application of isotopic dating techniques, recent geochronological data show that at least a part of the so-called ‘Proterozoic basement’ has been proven to be Mesozoic or Cenozoic rocks (Guo et al. Citation2016; Qi et al. Citation2014). The metamorphic deformation is closely related to the subsequent tectonic action of Mesozoic and Cenozoic upon the Precambrian basement. Multi-stage tectonic deformation events are especially considered to be affected by the final continental extrusion between India and Asia continents since the Cenozoic era (Morley, Citation2007; Morley & Wang, Citation2023).

According to recent geochronology studies in recent years, the protoliths of gneisses and migmatites constituting the main body in the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt were proved to be generated in Proterozoic, Triassic and Cenozoic emplacement rocks (H. C. Liu et al. Citation2014). The zircons in the granitic rocks show multi-stage apparent ages, indicating a complex tectonic evolution for the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt. The presence of a great deal of Neoproterozoic zircons indicates that Neoproterozoic magmatism may exist in the area (e.g. Cai et al. Citation2014, Citation2015; Qi et al. Citation2012; Y. J. Wang et al. Citation2016). The presence of Paleo-Mesoproterozoic zircons indicates that there may be more ancient basement material in the area, consistent with Nd isotopic results, suggesting that there may be Paleoproterozoic and Meso-Neoproterozoic basement rocks (Zhong, Citation1998). The presence of Permian-Triassic zircons suggests Paleo-Tethyan Ocean tectono-thermal events (H. C. Liu et al. Citation2014; J. L. Liu et al. Citation2015). Cenozoic tectono-thermal evolution of the Ailaoshan complex is attributed to the convergence of the Indian-Eurasian plates, which caused the post-orogenic extension and the large-scale left-lateral strike-slip deformation. The zircon inheritance ages in the core of Cenozoic samples indicate that the remnant of the zircons retained in the older age is likely to be remelted, suggesting that the crustal geothermal remelting was partially reminiscent of the tectonic setting associated with the Cenozoic magmatic event.

In summary, the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt should be a complex composed of different rocks with variable ages. Although Archean materials cannot be excluded, their original rocks contain Middle-Late Triassic magmatic rocks and Cenozoic granites besides the Proterozoic basement. They are similar to the Gaoligongshan and the Chongshan metamorphic belt (Tan et al. Citation2013; Xu et al. Citation2015). Granitic gneiss and migmatite in the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt are influenced by shear heating and contain zircon metamorphic hyperplasia. They experienced a long and complex thermal history and were mainly derived from Proterozoic crustal rocks and were captured by the protolith magma when the latter was emplaced in the Cenozoic. That is to say, the ancient metamorphic basement rocks become activated again during the southeast extrusion of the Indochina block.

4.2. Cenozoic magmatic-metamorphism age record in the Ailaoshan tectonic belt

Since the India-Eurasia collision, it has been a hotspot of Cenozoic tectonic-magmatic- metamorphic-metallogenic activities in the Ailaoshan tectonic belt (Deng et al. Citation2014; C. M. Wang et al. Citation2016). Numerous Eocene-Miocene magmatic events are recorded in the four major metamorphic belts (Xuelongshan, Diancangshan, Ailaoshan in Yunnan, China, and Day Nui Con Voi in Vietnam) (e.g. Leloup & Kienast, Citation1993; Palin et al. Citation2013; Schärer et al. Citation1990, Citation1994; Tapponnier et al. Citation1990), which are also maintained by metamorphic zircons also record this thermal event (Cao, Liu, et al. Citation2011; Gilley et al. Citation2003; Sassier et al. Citation2009). The origin of zircon grains in granitic rocks may provide a basis for determining whether they belong to pre-shear or syn-shear rocks. Zircon grains of pre-shear granitic rocks are often characterised by magmatic zircons with Th/U > 0.1. While the zircon grains in granitic rocks formed within shear processes are characterised by metamorphic zircons and the most typical feature is characterised by Th/U < 0.1, indicating the formation by anatexis (e.g. Cao, Liu, et al. Citation2011; Tang, Liu, et al. Citation2013; Tang, Yin, et al. Citation2013). Nevertheless, the results of Zircon Th/U data of the Cenozoic granitic rocks in the Ailaoshan tectonic belt show that both the reported pre-shear and syn-shear rocks as described by the predecessors have some high U-effect and Th/U ratios with both > 0.1 and < 0.1 (). Accordingly, we should be prudent to simply use zircon Th/U ratios to discriminate between pre-shear and syn-shear rocks (Lopez-Sanchez et al. Citation2016). These zircons carry evidence of components having both ‘magmatic’ and ‘metamorphic’ Th/U ratios. To explain these, variable and complex protoliths were possibly subjected to crustal melting that eventually contributed to the Cenozoic magmatism.

The closure temperatures of the Ar system (amphibole, ca. 520°C, muscovite, ca. 350°C, biotite, ca. 280°C; Parrish, Citation2001) and the closure temperature of apatite fission track (ca. 110°C, Naeser & Dodge, Citation1969) are lower than those of the U-Pb system (zircon and monazite). The U-Pb closure temperature is comparable to the temperature of high-grade metamorphism and melting (Copeland et al. Citation1988; Parrish, Citation2001). Therefore, the40Ar/39Ar dating results record the ages when magma cooled to the closure temperature after the formation of rocks and minerals, resulting in the40Ar/39Ar age being lower than the U-Pb age for the same magmatic rocks. In some cases, 40Ar/39Ar age can be used to record volcanic rocks with a rapid cooling history rather than the intrusive rocks. Leloup et al. (Citation1995, Citation2001). and Schärer et al. (Citation1990, Citation1994). emphasised the simultaneity of metamorphism and magmatism, especially the significance of shear heating in the formation of granite veins along the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone. Recent studies have highlighted that earlier left-lateral strike-slip activities occurred at high temperatures of ca. 750°C (Cao, Neubauer, et al. Citation2011; Gilley et al. Citation2003), which is equivalent to high-grade metamorphism and melting. In order to explain the heat source, some scholars believe the full lithosphere penetration of the shear system may divide two lithospheric blocks and allow efficient heat advection from the mantle (Leloup et al. Citation1995; L. S. Zhang & Schärer, Citation1999).

Cenozoic geochronological data of magmatic and metamorphic rocks of the Ailaoshan high grade metamorphic belt have been well-investigated in (). Through the above analysis and discussions, we hold that the Ailaoshan shear zone experienced early high temperature magmatism and metamorphism in ca.41–20 Ma and cooling history in ca. 40–5 Ma. The accessory mineral U-Pb ages of granitoids within the belt range from 41 Ma to 20 Ma, indicating the occurrence of high-temperature deformation. It can be seen from the data that few U-Pb age was recorded, while cooling process continued after ~20 Ma, reflecting a possible tectonic transition. The results of Ar-Ar dating of various minerals are in the range of ~40–5 Ma, concentrated in ~35–20 Ma. The U-Pb and Ar-Ar age data of Cenozoic granitic rocks from the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt show a similar pattern and coincide basically, indicating a rapid cooling process (). These observations argued for the possibly of a tectonothermal transform in the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone at ~20 Ma. Apatite fission track age data and thermal history inversion simulation also reveal that there is a rapid exfoliation event in the Late Eocene-Early Miocene (40–20 Ma), and a stable slow exfoliation process after the early Miocene (~20 Ma). It is suggested that the middle and lower crust materials of the Tibetan Plateau may have expanded to the southeast margin since the middle to Late Miocene (Ren et al. Citation2020).

Figure 5. Comparison of age spectra on samples from the ASRR shear system. The numerical and stage time scales are those of Gradstein et al. (Citation2004). Numbers on data points refer to the following sources: 1 L. S. Zhang and Schärer (Citation1999), p. 2 Cao, Liu, et al. (Citation2011), p. 3 Qi et al. (Citation2014), p. 4 Zhao et al. (Citation2014), p. 5 Lin et al. (Citation2012), p. 6 Schärer et al. (Citation1994), p. 7 Tang, Liu, et al. (Citation2013), p. 8 J. L. Liu et al. (Citation2015), p. 9 Sassier et al. (Citation2009), p. 10 B. L. Li et al. (Citation2014), p. 11 Chung et al. (Citation1997), p. 12 Palin et al. (Citation2013), p. 13 Anczkiewicz et al. (Citation2012), p. 14 Anczkiewicz and Viola (Citation2003), p. 15 F. L. Liu et al. (Citation2015), p. 16 B. Zhang et al. (Citation2014), p. 17 Leloup et al. (Citation2001), p. 18 Leloup and Kienast (Citation1993), p. 19 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2015), p. 20 F. L. Liu et al. (Citation2013), p. 21 Harrison et al. (Citation1992), p. 22 Harrison et al. (Citation1996), p. 23 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation1998), p. 24 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation2000), p. 25 Maluski et al. (Citation2001), p. 26 Cao, Neubauer, et al. (Citation2011), p. 27 Guo et al. (Citation2016), p. 28 Wan et al. (Citation1997), p. 29 Q. Li et al. (Citation2001), p. 30 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation2011), p. 31 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2016), p. 32 D. B. Wang et al. (Citation2017), p. 33 M. L. Wang et al. (Citation2016), p. 34 He et al. (Citation2019), p. 35 T. J. Yang et al. (Citation2019), p. 36 He et al. (Citation2020), p. 37 W. Chen et al. (Citation2018), p. 38 L. Ji et al. (Citation2017), p. 39 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2019), p. 40 H. B. Wang et al. (Citation2022), p. 41 Kang et al. (Citation2022), p. 42 Gou et al. (Citation2024), p. 43 Nguyen Ngoc et al. (Citation2016), p. 44 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2024).

Figure 5. Comparison of age spectra on samples from the ASRR shear system. The numerical and stage time scales are those of Gradstein et al. (Citation2004). Numbers on data points refer to the following sources: 1 L. S. Zhang and Schärer (Citation1999), p. 2 Cao, Liu, et al. (Citation2011), p. 3 Qi et al. (Citation2014), p. 4 Zhao et al. (Citation2014), p. 5 Lin et al. (Citation2012), p. 6 Schärer et al. (Citation1994), p. 7 Tang, Liu, et al. (Citation2013), p. 8 J. L. Liu et al. (Citation2015), p. 9 Sassier et al. (Citation2009), p. 10 B. L. Li et al. (Citation2014), p. 11 Chung et al. (Citation1997), p. 12 Palin et al. (Citation2013), p. 13 Anczkiewicz et al. (Citation2012), p. 14 Anczkiewicz and Viola (Citation2003), p. 15 F. L. Liu et al. (Citation2015), p. 16 B. Zhang et al. (Citation2014), p. 17 Leloup et al. (Citation2001), p. 18 Leloup and Kienast (Citation1993), p. 19 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2015), p. 20 F. L. Liu et al. (Citation2013), p. 21 Harrison et al. (Citation1992), p. 22 Harrison et al. (Citation1996), p. 23 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation1998), p. 24 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation2000), p. 25 Maluski et al. (Citation2001), p. 26 Cao, Neubauer, et al. (Citation2011), p. 27 Guo et al. (Citation2016), p. 28 Wan et al. (Citation1997), p. 29 Q. Li et al. (Citation2001), p. 30 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation2011), p. 31 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2016), p. 32 D. B. Wang et al. (Citation2017), p. 33 M. L. Wang et al. (Citation2016), p. 34 He et al. (Citation2019), p. 35 T. J. Yang et al. (Citation2019), p. 36 He et al. (Citation2020), p. 37 W. Chen et al. (Citation2018), p. 38 L. Ji et al. (Citation2017), p. 39 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2019), p. 40 H. B. Wang et al. (Citation2022), p. 41 Kang et al. (Citation2022), p. 42 Gou et al. (Citation2024), p. 43 Nguyen Ngoc et al. (Citation2016), p. 44 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2024).

Figure 6. Statistical distributions of the U-Pb ages and Ar-ar ages from the ASRR shear system (n: total number of data).

Figure 6. Statistical distributions of the U-Pb ages and Ar-ar ages from the ASRR shear system (n: total number of data).

Table 2. 40Ar/39Ar age data within the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone in southeastern Tibet.

5. Tectonothermal evolution of Sanjiang area

The Sanjiang area is a typical tectonic superposition region in Cenozoic, where the magmatism and metamorphism transferred from the Gaoligongshan to Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone. Unravelling the thermal history of these units is difficult, while of great importance for the understanding of the tectonic evolution of the SE Asia. Continuous northward convergence of the Indian plate at the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis may have caused the clockwise rotation and southeastward extrusion of the Indochina continent. Since the India-Eurasia collision, the geological characteristics of the Sanjiang area such as timing of magmatism and metamorphism, heat sources and kinematic relationships in relation to the opening of the South China Sea are key elements for the hypothesis of tectonic extrusion (Briais et al. Citation1993; Mazur et al. Citation2012).

In order to place the Cenozoic tectothermal evolution of the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system into a regional geodynamic context, it is necessary to make some comparisons with surrounding regions that have experienced contemporaneous exhumation and magmatism. However, the temporal-spatial relations of the strike-slip shear systems in Sanjiang area are less considered in a unified system. In fact, the unique Cenozoic magmatism and metamorphism in the Ailaoshan metamorphic belt also existed in the Chongshan and Gaoligongshan metamorphic belt (). The Gaoligongshan dextral strike-slip shear system and the Chongshan sinistral shear system were considered to begin at ca. 32 Ma and end at ca. 17–15 Ma (Y. J. Wang et al. Citation2006). Similar isotopic dating data of different minerals from mylonites, gneiss, and granitic veins in previous studies also indicate that the metamorphism of the Gaoligongshan ranges from 38 to 22 Ma (J. Q. Ji et al. Citation2000; Song et al. Citation2010; Xu et al. Citation2015). The kinematic characteristics of the Chongshan sinistral shear system suggest that the nature of their motion and deformation sequence are similar to those of the Ailaoshan shear system. These evidences indicate that during the continuous northward convergence of the Indian plate, the crustal material in Southeast Asia is extruded to the southeast, forming large-scale extrusion structures. The specific process of dealing with internal blocks between three significant ductile shear systems may be different. For example, the different velocities of the two left lateral strike slip shear systems may have induced the rotation of the blocks (Kornfeld et al. Citation2014; S. H. Li et al. Citation2017; Sato et al. Citation2001). The northward movement of the Indian subcontinent relative to the South China Block produced a shear stress system in the Sanjiang area, and the Ailaoshan-Redriver shear zone rotated clockwise while coordinating the Indochina Block extrusion to the southeast (E. C. Wang et al. Citation2021). However, the Ailaoshan, Chongshan and Gaoligongshan metamorphic belts in Sanjiang area have a similar tectonic settings during Cenozoic, corresponding to the response of the converging process between India and Eurasia plate in the southeastern margin of the Tibet Plateau (). These shear systems should not be treated in isolation, but instead be incorporated into a unified structural system as an important area for lateral extrusion.

Figure 7. Comparison of age spectra on samples from the ASRR shear system. The numerical and stage time scales are those of Gradstein et al. (Citation2004). Numbers on data points refer to the following sources: 1 L. S. Zhang and Schärer (Citation1999), p. 2 Cao, Liu, et al. (Citation2011), p. 3 Qi et al. (Citation2014), p. 4 Zhao et al. (Citation2014), p. 5 Lin et al. (Citation2012), p. 6 Schärer et al. (Citation1994), p. 7 Tang, Liu, et al. (Citation2013), p. 8 J. L. Liu et al. (Citation2015), p. 9 Sassier et al. (Citation2009), p. 10 B. L. Li et al. (Citation2014), p. 11 Chung et al. (Citation1997), p. 12 Palin et al. (Citation2013), p. 13 Anczkiewicz et al. (Citation2012), p. 14 Anczkiewicz and Viola (Citation2003), p. 15 F. L. Liu et al. (Citation2015), p. 16 B. Zhang et al. (Citation2014), p. 17 Leloup et al. (Citation2001), p. 18 Leloup and Kienast (Citation1993), p. 19 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2015), p. 20 F. L. Liu et al. (Citation2013), p. 21 Harrison et al. (Citation1992), p. 22 Harrison et al. (Citation1996), p. 23 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation1998), p. 24 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation2000), p. 25 Maluski et al. (Citation2001), p. 26 Cao, Neubauer, et al. (Citation2011), p. 27 Guo et al. (Citation2016), p. 28 Wan et al. (Citation1997), p. 29 Q. Li et al. (Citation2001), p. 30 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation2011), p. 31 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2016), p. 32 D. B. Wang et al. (Citation2017), p. 33 M. L. Wang et al. (Citation2016), p. 34 He et al. (Citation2019), p. 35 T. J. Yang et al. (Citation2019), p. 36 He et al. (Citation2020), p. 37 W. Chen et al. (Citation2018), p. 38 L. Ji et al. (Citation2017), p. 39 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2019), p. 40 H. B. Wang et al. (Citation2022), p. 41 Kang et al. (Citation2022), p. 42 Gou et al. (Citation2024), p. 43 Nguyen Ngoc et al. (Citation2016), p. 44 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2024), p. 45 J. Q. Ji et al. (Citation2000), p. 46 Y. J. Wang et al. (Citation2006), p. 47 Z. H. Li et al. (Citation2012), p. 48 Song et al. (Citation2010), p. 49 Lin et al. (Citation2009), p. 50 Zhang, Zhang, Zhong, et al. (Citation2012), p. 51 Akciz et al. (Citation2008), p. 52 Zhang, Zhang, Chang, et al. (Citation2012), p. 53 B. Zhang et al. (Citation2010), p. 54 Tang, Yin, et al. (Citation2013), p. 55 Xu et al. (Citation2015), p. 56 J. Y. Li et al. (Citation2023), p. 57 Dong et al. (Citation2022), p. 58 J. L. Wang et al. (Citation2022), p. 59 Huang et al. (Citation2021), p. 60 Tang et al. (Citation2016).

Figure 7. Comparison of age spectra on samples from the ASRR shear system. The numerical and stage time scales are those of Gradstein et al. (Citation2004). Numbers on data points refer to the following sources: 1 L. S. Zhang and Schärer (Citation1999), p. 2 Cao, Liu, et al. (Citation2011), p. 3 Qi et al. (Citation2014), p. 4 Zhao et al. (Citation2014), p. 5 Lin et al. (Citation2012), p. 6 Schärer et al. (Citation1994), p. 7 Tang, Liu, et al. (Citation2013), p. 8 J. L. Liu et al. (Citation2015), p. 9 Sassier et al. (Citation2009), p. 10 B. L. Li et al. (Citation2014), p. 11 Chung et al. (Citation1997), p. 12 Palin et al. (Citation2013), p. 13 Anczkiewicz et al. (Citation2012), p. 14 Anczkiewicz and Viola (Citation2003), p. 15 F. L. Liu et al. (Citation2015), p. 16 B. Zhang et al. (Citation2014), p. 17 Leloup et al. (Citation2001), p. 18 Leloup and Kienast (Citation1993), p. 19 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2015), p. 20 F. L. Liu et al. (Citation2013), p. 21 Harrison et al. (Citation1992), p. 22 Harrison et al. (Citation1996), p. 23 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation1998), p. 24 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation2000), p. 25 Maluski et al. (Citation2001), p. 26 Cao, Neubauer, et al. (Citation2011), p. 27 Guo et al. (Citation2016), p. 28 Wan et al. (Citation1997), p. 29 Q. Li et al. (Citation2001), p. 30 P. L. Wang et al. (Citation2011), p. 31 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2016), p. 32 D. B. Wang et al. (Citation2017), p. 33 M. L. Wang et al. (Citation2016), p. 34 He et al. (Citation2019), p. 35 T. J. Yang et al. (Citation2019), p. 36 He et al. (Citation2020), p. 37 W. Chen et al. (Citation2018), p. 38 L. Ji et al. (Citation2017), p. 39 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2019), p. 40 H. B. Wang et al. (Citation2022), p. 41 Kang et al. (Citation2022), p. 42 Gou et al. (Citation2024), p. 43 Nguyen Ngoc et al. (Citation2016), p. 44 X. Y. Chen et al. (Citation2024), p. 45 J. Q. Ji et al. (Citation2000), p. 46 Y. J. Wang et al. (Citation2006), p. 47 Z. H. Li et al. (Citation2012), p. 48 Song et al. (Citation2010), p. 49 Lin et al. (Citation2009), p. 50 Zhang, Zhang, Zhong, et al. (Citation2012), p. 51 Akciz et al. (Citation2008), p. 52 Zhang, Zhang, Chang, et al. (Citation2012), p. 53 B. Zhang et al. (Citation2010), p. 54 Tang, Yin, et al. (Citation2013), p. 55 Xu et al. (Citation2015), p. 56 J. Y. Li et al. (Citation2023), p. 57 Dong et al. (Citation2022), p. 58 J. L. Wang et al. (Citation2022), p. 59 Huang et al. (Citation2021), p. 60 Tang et al. (Citation2016).

Figure 8. Tectonothermal evolution model associated strike-slip shear systems in southeastern Tibet since the India-Eurasia collision during Oligocene. 3D model (A), 2D plan drawing (B, revised from Deng et al. Citation2014), and section plane drawing (C, revised from Socquet & Pubellier, Citation2005).

Figure 8. Tectonothermal evolution model associated strike-slip shear systems in southeastern Tibet since the India-Eurasia collision during Oligocene. 3D model (A), 2D plan drawing (B, revised from Deng et al. Citation2014), and section plane drawing (C, revised from Socquet & Pubellier, Citation2005).

6. Conclusions

A comprehensive geochronological study of high-grade metamorphic rocks in the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system together with Chongshan and Gaoligongshan shear system has led to the following conclusions.

  1. The Ailaoshan metamorphic belt should be composed of rocks with different lithology and age. They contain middle-late Triassic magmatic rocks and Cenozoic granites besides the Proterozoic basement. The metamorphic deformation is especially closely related to the subsequent tectonic action upon the Precambrian basement during Mesozoic and Cenozoic.

  2. The accessory mineral U-Pb ages of granitoids from the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone range from ~41 Ma to 20 Ma. The results of Ar-Ar dating of various minerals are in the range of ~40-5 Ma, concentrated in ~35–20 Ma. The U-Pb age and Ar-Ar cooling history coincide basically, indicating a rapid cooling process and reflecting a possible tectonic transition after ~20 Ma.

  3. Although there are some differences in the response process between the inner blocks along the Ailaoshan-Red River shear system in the east and the Chongshan and Gaoligongshan shear system in the west of the Sanjiang area, they have similar extrusion deformation background and correspond to the response of the India-Eurasia convergence process. The crustal deformation such as shortening, thickening, stretching, lateral escape and rotation share a unified geodynamic background during the Cenozoic in southeast margin of Tibet Plateau.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This study was financially supported by the Science and Technology Project of Jiangxi Province Department of Education (GJJ170539).

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